22.3 Craft Production in Mughal India

I. Introduction

The rich history of Mughal India is marked by its vibrant craft production, which encompassed a wide range of artistic disciplines, including pottery, weaving, wood carving, metalworking, and jewelry making. These crafts flourished under the patronage of Mughal emperors, who encouraged cultural exchange and innovation, resulting in a unique fusion of Persian, Indian, and European styles and techniques that continue to influence contemporary Indian art and culture.

II. Craft Production in Mughal India: An Overview

Pottery

• Mughal pottery was known for its intricate designs and patterns.
• Glazed pottery started in the 13th century AD under Turkic rulers who encouraged potters from Persia to migrate to India.
• Pottery was used for making beads, seals, bangles, and other decorative items.

Weaving

• Mughal carpets were handwoven floor coverings made in India in the 16th and 17th centuries for the Mughal emperors and their courts.
• Mughal carpets were a blend of Persian and Indian artistry, uniquely designed with scenic landscapes, floral, and animal patterns.
• Carpet weaving was renowned in Agra, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri.

Wood Carving

• Mughal wood carving was known for its intricate designs and patterns.
• Examples of wood carving from the Mughal period include thrones with Qur’anic verses and decorative trays.

Metalworking

• Mughal metalwork included the production of weapons, armor, coins, and jewelry.
• The most important centers of production of military equipment were Delhi and Lahore.
• Mughal metalwork also included the production of decorative items such as water flasks (surahi).

Jewelry Making

• Mughal jewelry was known for its intricate designs, use of precious stones, and enameling techniques.
• Mughal emperors were enthusiastic about textile materials and set up numerous imperial workshops across India for the production of jewelry and other luxury goods.

Factors Contributing to the Growth of Crafts

• Royal patronage: Mughal emperors, especially Akbar, supported the growth of various crafts by setting up imperial workshops and promoting the training of local artisans.
• International trade: Mughal crafts were traded to Europe and the Far East, where they were highly valued and sought after.
• Cultural exchange: The Mughal Empire was known for its cultural diversity, which influenced the development of various crafts. Persian and European traditions played a significant role in shaping Mughal crafts.

Craft Workshops and Karkhanas

• Mughal karkhanas were manufacturing houses and workshops for craftsmen, established by the Mughals in their empire.
• Karkhanas were small manufacturing units for various arts and crafts, as well as for the emperor’s household and military needs.
• Imperial or Royal Karkhanas were for luxury goods and weapons, and they were the place for various production activities and exploration of new techniques and innovations.

III. Techniques and Materials in Mughal Crafts

Inlay Work

• Inlay work, also known as ‘Pachchikari’ or ‘Parchinkari’, is a technique where colored or semi-precious stones are inlaid into marbles.
• This technique was used extensively in Mughal architecture, such as the Taj Mahal, Agra Fort, and Itmad Ud Daulah.

Glass Engraving

• The Mughal rulers introduced the art of glass engraving to India.
• Mughal craftsmen excelled in creating delicate foliated designs on glass objects.

Carpet Weaving

• Mughal carpets were handwoven and featured a blend of Persian and Indian artistry.
• The carpets were known for their elaborate designs, depicting court life, animals, and floral motifs.
• Carpet weaving centers were established in Agra, Delhi, and Lahore during the Mughal period.

Brocades

• Mughal brocades were known for their elegance, symmetry, and intricate floral patterns.
• Brocade weaving was a significant part of Indian heritage and flourished during the Mughal period.

Enameling

• Enameling is a technique used to create intricate designs on metal surfaces, such as jewelry.
• Mughal jewelry was known for its use of enameling techniques, which added color and detail to the metalwork.

Gemstone Decoration

• Mughal crafts, especially jewelry, were known for their use of precious stones.
• Gemstone decoration was a significant aspect of Mughal art, with artisans using various techniques to set and arrange stones in intricate patterns.

Craftsmanship and Techniques

• Mughal craftsmen were skilled in various techniques, such as opaque watercolor painting on paper, which was used in Mughal miniature paintings.
• The artists would lay out the composition with charcoal or thin black ink, followed by a thin ground layer of opaque watercolor, and then add further layers of paint to create detailed designs.

IV. Influence of Persian and European Traditions on Mughal Crafts

Persian Influence on Mughal Crafts

• Mughal art and architecture were greatly influenced by Persian styles, as Persian artists were patronized by Mughal rulers and employed in their courts.
• Mughal miniature paintings were heavily influenced by Persian miniature style, with Persian literary themes and words often seen in the border calligraphy.
• The use of bright and vibrant color palettes in Mughal paintings can be attributed to the influence of Persian art.

European Influence on Mughal Crafts

• European art began to influence Mughal painting during the reign of Emperor Akbar.
• European emissaries and missionaries introduced new techniques such as the use of light and shade to capture space and volume, and the use of atmospheric effects to indicate spatial recession and aerial perspective.
• The Jesuit missions to the Mughal courts also strengthened the synthesis between Mughal and European cultures, leading to the development of new styles and techniques in Mughal art.

Amalgamation of Styles and Techniques

• Mughal crafts were characterized by the blending of Persian, Indian, and European styles, resulting in a unique and distinct style.
• The Mughal style of painting, for instance, combined elements of Persian miniature painting, Indian artistry, and European techniques, creating a harmonious fusion of styles.
• This amalgamation of styles and techniques can also be seen in other Mughal crafts, such as architecture, textiles, and jewelry.

Introduction of New Techniques and Materials

• The influence of Persian and European traditions led to the introduction of new techniques and materials in Mughal crafts.
• For example, the use of enameling in Mughal jewelry was influenced by European techniques.
• Similarly, the use of inlay work in Mughal architecture was inspired by Persian techniques.

Cultural Exchange and the Development of Mughal Crafts

• The cultural exchange between the Mughal Empire and other regions, facilitated by Persian and European influences, played a significant role in the development of Mughal crafts.
• The blending of styles and techniques from different cultures led to the creation of unique and innovative art forms, which became characteristic of the Mughal period.
• This cultural exchange also contributed to the transmission of ideas, techniques, and artistic styles between the Mughal Empire and other regions, further enriching the artistic landscape of the time.

V. Craft Production and the Mughal Economy

Contribution of Crafts to the Empire’s Wealth

• Crafts played a significant role in the Mughal economy, contributing to the empire’s wealth and prosperity.
• The production of textiles, metalwork, and other crafts generated income and employment for artisans and craftsmen.
• Mughal rulers invested in local arts and crafts, setting up workshops and promoting the training of local artisans.

Trade and Mughal Crafts

• Mughal crafts were highly valued in international trade, with European and Far Eastern markets demanding products such as textiles, spices, and metalwork.
• The growth of foreign trade during the Mughal period led to the establishment of marketplaces in towns and villages, further boosting the production of handicrafts.
• Major urban centers for trade during the Mughal era included Agra, Delhi, Thatta, Lahore, Multan, and Srinagar in the northern region, and Cambay, Broach, and Surat in Gujarat in the western part.

Craft Production and Economic Growth

• The flourishing of crafts during the Mughal period contributed to overall economic growth in the empire.
• The expansion of trade and commerce, supported by improved transport and communication systems, facilitated the growth of craft production.
• The Mughal state encouraged greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation, providing raw materials for various crafts.

Impact on Society and Culture

• The growth of craft production during the Mughal period had a significant impact on society and culture.
• The patronage of arts and crafts by Mughal rulers led to the development of unique and innovative art forms, which became characteristic of the Mughal period.
• The cultural exchange between the Mughal Empire and other regions, facilitated by the growth of crafts, contributed to the transmission of ideas, techniques, and artistic styles, further enriching the artistic landscape of the time.

VI. Craft Workshops and Karkhanas

Organization of Karkhanas

Mughal karkhanas were manufacturing houses and workshops for craftsmen, established by the Mughals in their empire. These karkhanas were small manufacturing units for various arts and crafts, as well as for the emperor’s household and military needs. Karkhanas were named and classified based on the nature of the job. For example:

• Chhapakhana and Rangkhana for textile production (printing and dyeing)
• Toshkhana for shawl making and embellishment work
• Kirkarakhana (kurkyaraq khana) for wardrobe
• Farrash khana for carpets, floor coverings, rugs, mats, and tents

Functioning of Karkhanas

Mughal karkhanas played a very important role in the department of secondary economic activity. These karkhanas were maintained by the state, nobles, mansabdars, and zamindars. Craftsmen could experiment with new ideas and techniques, which brought a new revolution in the Mughal empire. The Mughal karkhanas were not only the workshops that brought different craftsmen together under one roof but also a place where the craftsmen could experiment with new ideas and techniques.

Role in Promoting Innovation

The Mughal karkhanas facilitated the exchange of ideas and techniques among craftsmen, which led to the development of new and innovative products. The karkhanas inducted the best possible raw materials and techniques from India and abroad. For instance, the swords in Silehkhana were damascened, a technique inducted from Damascus. The karkhanas were not dead ends, as they allowed for the continuous development and improvement of products and techniques.

Maintaining High Standards of Craftsmanship

The Mughal karkhanas were known for maintaining high standards of craftsmanship. The products manufactured in these karkhanas were not only utilitarian items but also exquisite masterpieces of art and craft. Many of these products can be found in museums and art galleries in India and abroad. The Mughal karkhanas were responsible for the production of goods for the royal household and the army, and they were an inextricable part of the larger Mughal economy.

Influence of Persian and European Traditions

The Mughal karkhanas were influenced by Persian and European traditions, which led to the amalgamation of styles and the introduction of new techniques and materials. Indian craft technology remained isolated and their forms undeveloped in comparison to European technology of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. However, the Mughal karkhanas played a crucial role in bridging this gap and incorporating foreign techniques and materials into their products.

Impact on Mughal Economy

The karkhanas were one of the significant revenue-making establishments of the Mughals. Textiles of India flourished under the Mughal Empire, and Indian cotton and silk textiles were traded along most of the port cities located in the Indian Ocean, Arabian Sea, and Red Sea, as well as through caravan routes to Central Asia. The Mughal karkhanas played a crucial role in boosting the manufacturing sector in the Mughal Empire, which in turn contributed to the overall economic growth of the empire.

VII. Artisans and Craftsmen in Mughal Society

Social Status and Working Conditions

• Artisans and craftsmen held a significant position in Mughal society, as they were responsible for producing various crafts that contributed to the empire’s wealth and prosperity.
• The social status of artisans varied, with some being highly regarded for their skills and expertise, while others were considered lower in the social hierarchy.
• Working conditions for artisans and craftsmen were diverse, with some working in royal karkhanas under favorable conditions, while others worked independently or in small workshops with limited resources.

Role of Guilds and Other Organizations

• Guilds played a crucial role in supporting artisans and craftsmen during the Mughal period.
• Trade guilds, such as the Ainnurruvar, Manigramam, and Nagarattar, were formed by merchants in order to organize and expand their trading activities, and they also supported the growth of various crafts.
• Guilds provided a platform for artisans to collaborate, exchange ideas and techniques, and maintain high standards of craftsmanship.

Impact of Mughal Patronage on Artisans and Craftsmen

• Mughal rulers were known for their patronage of arts and crafts, which had a significant impact on the lives of artisans and craftsmen.
• The establishment of karkhanas by Mughal rulers provided employment opportunities for skilled artisans, who were able to work under the direct supervision of master craftsmen and receive regular wages.
• Mughal patronage also led to the development of new techniques and materials in various crafts, further enhancing the skills and expertise of artisans and craftsmen.

Challenges Faced by Artisans and Craftsmen

• Despite the support and patronage of Mughal rulers, artisans and craftsmen faced several challenges during this period.
• The lack of formal education and union representation made it difficult for artisans to negotiate fair wages and working conditions.
• The onset of the colonial period and the introduction of new technologies and industrialization led to a decline in traditional craft production, affecting the livelihoods of many artisans and craftsmen.

VIII. Craft Production and Cultural Exchange

Role of Craft Production in Cultural Exchange

• Craft production played a significant role in promoting cultural exchange between the Mughal Empire and other regions, as it facilitated the transmission of ideas, techniques, and artistic styles.
• The Mughal Empire was known for its cultural diversity, which influenced the development of various crafts, including the blending of Persian, Indian, and European styles.

Transmission of Ideas and Techniques

• The exchange of ideas and techniques between craftsmen from different regions and cultures within the Mughal Empire led to the development of unique and innovative art forms.
• The Mughal court attracted skilled artisans from different regions, who brought their own distinctive styles and techniques to the royal workshops.

Artistic Styles and Cultural Exchange

• Mughal art and architecture were greatly influenced by Persian styles, as Persian artists were patronized by Mughal rulers and employed in their courts.
• European art began to influence Mughal painting during the reign of Emperor Akbar, with European emissaries and missionaries introducing new techniques such as the use of light and shade to capture space and volume, and the use of atmospheric effects to indicate spatial recession and aerial perspective.

Impact on Mughal Crafts

• The influence of Persian and European traditions on Mughal crafts led to the development of new techniques and materials, as well as the blending of different artistic styles.
• This cultural exchange contributed to the growth of various crafts, such as the development of Mughal miniature paintings, which combined elements of Persian miniature painting, Indian artistry, and European techniques.

Trade and Cultural Exchange

• The Mughal Empire’s trade with European nations, such as Portugal, England, and the Netherlands, facilitated the exchange of ideas, techniques, and artistic styles between different regions.
• The growth of foreign trade during the Mughal period led to the establishment of marketplaces in towns and villages, further boosting the production of handicrafts and promoting cultural exchange.

Legacy of Cultural Exchange in Mughal Crafts

• The legacy of cultural exchange in Mughal crafts can be seen in the unique and innovative art forms that emerged during this period, characterized by the blending of Persian, Indian, and European styles.
• The enduring influence of Mughal crafts on contemporary Indian art and culture highlights the importance of cultural exchange in shaping the artistic landscape of the time.

IX. Conclusion

In conclusion, the craft production in Mughal India played a significant role in shaping the artistic and cultural landscape of the time, as it fostered innovation, cultural exchange, and economic growth. The unique fusion of Persian, Indian, and European styles and techniques in Mughal crafts continues to inspire contemporary Indian art and culture. As we move forward, it is essential to preserve and promote these traditional crafts, ensuring their legacy endures for future generations to appreciate and learn from.

1. How did the patronage of Mughal emperors contribute to the growth and development of various crafts in Mughal India, and what impact did this have on the empire’s economy and society? (250 words)
2. Analyze the influence of Persian and European traditions on Mughal crafts, focusing on the amalgamation of styles and the introduction of new techniques and materials. How did this cultural exchange shape the artistic landscape of the Mughal period? (250 words)
3. Examine the organization and functioning of craft workshops and karkhanas in Mughal India. How did these institutions promote innovation and maintain high standards of craftsmanship, and what challenges did artisans and craftsmen face during this period? (250 words)