I. Introduction

Background and context of Existentialism

• Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the 19th and 20th centuries.
• It primarily focuses on the individual’s subjective experience and the meaning of human existence.
• Existentialism arose as a response to the rapid changes in society, including industrialization, urbanization, and the decline of religious authority.
• Key existentialist philosophers include Søren Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Martin Heidegger.
• Existentialism emphasizes personal freedom, choice, and responsibility, rejecting the idea that human beings are determined by external forces or essences.
• The movement has influenced various fields, including literature, psychology, theology, and the arts.

The significance of Existence and Essence in Existentialism

• Existence and essence are two central concepts in existentialist philosophy.
• Existence refers to the actual, concrete reality of an individual, while essence refers to the inherent nature or characteristics of something.
• Traditional philosophy often prioritized essence over existence, asserting that the essence of a thing determines its existence.
• Existentialism challenges this view, arguing that existence precedes essence, meaning that individuals are not defined by predetermined essences or categories.
• Instead, existentialists believe that individuals create their own essence through their choices and actions.
• This emphasis on existence and essence highlights the importance of personal freedom, responsibility, and authenticity in existentialist thought.

Overview of Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger’s contributions

• Søren Kierkegaard (1813-1855): A Danish philosopher, Kierkegaard is often considered the father of existentialism. He emphasized the importance of individual subjectivity, faith, and the “leap of faith” in the face of uncertainty. Kierkegaard’s works, such as “Fear and Trembling” and “The Sickness Unto Death,” explore the tension between existence and essence, as well as the role of anxiety and despair in human life.
• Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980): A French philosopher, playwright, and novelist, Sartre is one of the most prominent existentialist thinkers. He developed the concept of “existence precedes essence” and explored themes of freedom, responsibility, and authenticity in works such as “Being and Nothingness” and “Existentialism is a Humanism.” Sartre also addressed the social and political implications of existentialism, advocating for individual freedom and social justice.
• Martin Heidegger (1889-1976): A German philosopher, Heidegger is known for his complex and influential work “Being and Time.” Heidegger’s philosophy focuses on the concept of “Being” (Dasein) and the nature of human existence. Heidegger’s work explores the relationship between existence and essence, as well as the role of temporality, language, and technology in shaping human experience. Heidegger’s ideas have had a significant impact on existentialism, as well as phenomenology, hermeneutics, and post-structuralism.

II. The Concept of Existence

Definition and understanding of existence

• Existence refers to the state or fact of being, having presence, or taking up space in the world.
• It is the condition of being real, actual, or occurring in a specific time and place.
• Existence is often contrasted with non-existence, which refers to the absence of being or the state of not existing.

The existentialist perspective on existence

• Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice.
• In existentialist thought, existence is considered to be primary, meaning that it precedes essence or the inherent nature of a thing.
• Existentialists argue that individuals are responsible for creating their own meaning and purpose in life through their actions and choices.
• Existentialism posits that human beings are not defined by any pre-existing essence or nature, but rather by their choices and actions in the world.
• Key existentialist philosophers, such as Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger, focus on the subjective experience of existence and the individual’s confrontation with the world.

Existence as a central theme in Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger’s works

• Søren Kierkegaard
  • Kierkegaard is often considered the father of existentialism, and his works explore the individual’s experience of existence, anxiety, and despair.
  • He emphasizes the importance of personal choice and responsibility in shaping one’s existence.
  • Kierkegaard’s concept of the “leap of faith” highlights the role of individual choice in determining the meaning and purpose of one’s life.
• Jean-Paul Sartre
  • Sartre’s existentialism focuses on the idea that “existence precedes essence,” meaning that individuals are not defined by any inherent nature or essence, but rather by their actions and choices.
  • Sartre argues that human beings are “condemned to be free” and must take responsibility for their choices and actions in the world.
  • His concept of “bad faith” refers to the denial of one’s own freedom and responsibility, leading to inauthentic existence.
• Martin Heidegger
  • Heidegger’s existentialism centers on the concept of “Being” (Dasein) and the individual’s experience of existence in the world.
  • Heidegger explores the nature of human existence, focusing on the individual’s relationship with time, death, and the world.
  • His concept of “being-toward-death” emphasizes the importance of confronting one’s own mortality and the finitude of existence, leading to a more authentic and meaningful life.

III. The Concept of Essence

Definition and understanding of essence

• Essence refers to the inherent nature or fundamental characteristics of an object, concept, or being.
• It is derived from the Latin word “essentia,” which means “being” or “nature.”
• In philosophy, essence is often contrasted with existence, as it pertains to the qualities or attributes that make something what it is, rather than its mere presence or being.

The existentialist perspective on essence

• Existentialism challenges the traditional view of essence, which posits that an object or being has a predetermined nature or set of characteristics.
• Existentialists argue that essence is not fixed or predetermined but is instead created or defined by the individual through their actions, choices, and experiences.
• This perspective is encapsulated in Jean-Paul Sartre’s famous phrase, “existence precedes essence,” which emphasizes the primacy of individual existence over any predetermined essence.
• For existentialists, essence is not an objective or universal quality but a subjective and personal construct that varies from one individual to another.

Essence as a central theme in Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger’s works

Kierkegaard on essence

• Søren Kierkegaard, often considered the father of existentialism, focused on the individual’s subjective experience and the importance of personal choice in defining one’s essence.
• Kierkegaard believed that an individual’s essence is shaped by their relationship with God and their pursuit of a meaningful, authentic existence.
• He argued that individuals must confront the “either/or” choices in life, which ultimately determine their essence and the meaning of their existence.

Sartre on essence

• Jean-Paul Sartre expanded on Kierkegaard’s ideas and further emphasized the primacy of existence over essence.
• Sartre argued that humans are “condemned to be free,” meaning that they have no predetermined essence and must create their own through their actions and choices.
• For Sartre, essence is not an inherent quality but a product of human freedom and responsibility, which allows individuals to define their own nature and purpose in life.

Heidegger on essence

• Martin Heidegger’s concept of essence is closely tied to his notion of “Being” (Dasein), which refers to the unique way in which humans exist in the world.
• Heidegger believed that essence is not a fixed or static quality but a dynamic process that unfolds over time as individuals engage with the world and confront their own mortality.
• For Heidegger, essence is not something that can be defined or determined in advance but is instead revealed through the individual’s authentic engagement with their own existence and the world around them.

IV. Kierkegaard on Existence and Essence

Kierkegaard’s existentialist philosophy

• Søren Kierkegaard is often considered the father of existentialism, a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice.
• Kierkegaard’s works focus on the individual’s subjective experience, faith, and the “leap of faith” in the face of uncertainty and despair.
• He believed that each person must confront the existential challenges of life, such as anxiety, despair, and the search for meaning, on their own terms.
• Kierkegaard’s philosophy is characterized by a focus on personal choice, responsibility, and the importance of authentic existence.
• His works, such as “Fear and Trembling,” “The Sickness Unto Death,” and “Either/Or,” explore various aspects of human existence, including the nature of faith, the role of despair, and the importance of individual choice.

The role of existence and essence in Kierkegaard’s thought

• Kierkegaard’s philosophy emphasizes the primacy of existence over essence, arguing that individuals are not defined by any pre-existing essence or nature.
• He believed that each person is responsible for creating their own essence through their choices and actions in the world.
• Kierkegaard’s concept of the “leap of faith” highlights the role of individual choice in determining the meaning and purpose of one’s life.
• He argued that individuals must confront the existential challenges of life, such as anxiety, despair, and the search for meaning, on their own terms.
• Kierkegaard’s focus on existence and essence underscores the importance of personal freedom, responsibility, and authenticity in his thought.

The relationship between existence and essence in Kierkegaard’s works

• In Kierkegaard’s works, the relationship between existence and essence is explored through various themes, such as faith, despair, and individual choice.
• For example, in “Fear and Trembling,” Kierkegaard examines the nature of faith and the role of the “leap of faith” in shaping one’s existence.
• He argues that faith requires a personal commitment and a willingness to embrace uncertainty, which in turn shapes the individual’s essence.
• In “The Sickness Unto Death,” Kierkegaard explores the concept of despair, which he sees as a fundamental aspect of human existence.
• He argues that despair arises from the tension between existence and essence, as individuals struggle to reconcile their finite existence with their desire for meaning and purpose.
• Kierkegaard’s emphasis on individual choice and responsibility in shaping one’s essence is also evident in “Either/Or,” where he presents two contrasting ways of life: the aesthetic and the ethical.
• The aesthetic life is characterized by a focus on pleasure, enjoyment, and the pursuit of personal desires, while the ethical life is centered on moral values, responsibility, and commitment to others.
• Kierkegaard argues that individuals must choose between these two ways of life, and that their choice will ultimately determine their essence and the meaning of their existence.

V. Sartre on Existence and Essence

Sartre’s existentialist philosophy

• Jean-Paul Sartre was a French philosopher, playwright, and novelist, and one of the most prominent existentialist thinkers.
• Sartre’s existentialism is atheistic, emphasizing human freedom, responsibility, and the absence of any predetermined essence or nature.
• His philosophy is grounded in the idea that “existence precedes essence,” meaning that individuals are not defined by any inherent nature but rather by their actions and choices.
• Sartre’s existentialism also addresses social and political issues, advocating for individual freedom, social justice, and the importance of human solidarity.

The role of existence and essence in Sartre’s thought

• In Sartre’s philosophy, existence is primary, and essence is secondary. This means that individuals exist first, and their essence is created through their choices and actions.
• Sartre argues that human beings are “condemned to be free,” meaning that they are responsible for their choices and actions, and cannot escape this responsibility by appealing to any predetermined essence or nature.
• The concept of “bad faith” is central to Sartre’s thought, referring to the denial of one’s own freedom and responsibility, which leads to inauthentic existence.
• Sartre also emphasizes the importance of “authenticity,” which involves recognizing and embracing one’s freedom and responsibility, and living in accordance with one’s self-created essence.

The relationship between existence and essence in Sartre’s works

• In his major philosophical work, “Being and Nothingness,” Sartre explores the nature of human existence and the relationship between existence and essence.
  • Sartre distinguishes between “being-in-itself” (the objective, external world) and “being-for-itself” (the subjective, conscious self).
  • He argues that human beings are unique in their ability to create their own essence through their choices and actions, which sets them apart from other objects in the world.
• In his famous essay, “Existentialism is a Humanism,” Sartre defends existentialism against various criticisms and further elaborates on the relationship between existence and essence.
  • Sartre argues that existentialism is a humanistic philosophy, emphasizing the dignity and value of human beings, and their capacity for freedom, responsibility, and self-determination.
  • He also addresses the ethical implications of existentialism, arguing that individuals must create their own moral values and principles through their choices and actions.
• Sartre’s novels and plays, such as “Nausea,” “No Exit,” and “The Flies,” also explore themes of existence, essence, freedom, and responsibility, illustrating the existentialist ideas and concepts in a more accessible and engaging way.

VI. Heidegger on Existence and Essence

Heidegger’s existentialist philosophy

• Martin Heidegger (1889-1976): A German philosopher, Heidegger is a key figure in existentialism and phenomenology.
• Heidegger’s primary work, “Being and Time,” is a complex and influential exploration of the nature of human existence and the concept of “Being” (Dasein).
• Heidegger’s philosophy focuses on the individual’s experience of existence, the relationship with time, language, and technology, and the role of authenticity in human life.
• His ideas have had a significant impact on various philosophical movements, including existentialism, phenomenology, hermeneutics, and post-structuralism.

The role of existence and essence in Heidegger’s thought

• Heidegger’s philosophy centers on the concept of “Being” (Dasein) and the nature of human existence.
• Heidegger argues that traditional metaphysics has neglected the question of Being, focusing instead on the essence of things.
• In “Being and Time,” Heidegger seeks to reorient philosophy toward the question of Being and the individual’s experience of existence.
• Heidegger’s concept of “thrownness” (Geworfenheit) emphasizes the fact that individuals are “thrown” into existence, with no predetermined essence or purpose.
• Heidegger also explores the role of temporality, arguing that human existence is fundamentally shaped by time and the awareness of one’s own finitude.

The relationship between existence and essence in Heidegger’s works

• Heidegger’s philosophy challenges the traditional prioritization of essence over existence, arguing that the question of Being must be addressed before any discussion of essence can take place.
• Heidegger contends that human beings are not defined by any pre-existing essence, but rather by their existence and the choices they make in the world.
• Heidegger’s concept of “authenticity” (Eigentlichkeit) emphasizes the importance of living an authentic life, in which individuals take responsibility for their choices and confront the reality of their existence.
• Heidegger’s exploration of existence and essence has had a significant impact on existentialist thought, as well as on other philosophical movements such as phenomenology and post-structuralism.

VII. Comparing and Contrasting Existence and Essence in Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger

Similarities and differences in their approaches to existence and essence

Kierkegaard

• Emphasizes individual subjectivity and personal choice in defining one’s existence and essence
• Believes that an individual’s essence is shaped by their relationship with God and their pursuit of a meaningful, authentic existence
• Focuses on the “either/or” choices in life, which ultimately determine one’s essence and the meaning of their existence

Sartre

• Develops the concept of “existence precedes essence,” asserting that individuals are not defined by any inherent nature or essence, but rather by their actions and choices
• Argues that humans are “condemned to be free” and must take responsibility for their choices and actions in the world
• Believes that essence is not an inherent quality but a product of human freedom and responsibility, which allows individuals to define their own nature and purpose in life

Heidegger

• Focuses on the concept of “Being” (Dasein) and the individual’s experience of existence in the world
• Believes that essence is not a fixed or static quality but a dynamic process that unfolds over time as individuals engage with the world and confront their own mortality
• Argues that essence is not something that can be defined or determined in advance but is instead revealed through the individual’s authentic engagement with their own existence and the world around them

The impact of their views on existentialist philosophy

• Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger have each made significant contributions to existentialist philosophy, shaping the way we understand existence and essence.
• Their emphasis on individual choice, freedom, and responsibility has had a profound impact on the development of existentialist thought and its influence on other philosophical movements.
• By challenging traditional views of essence and asserting the primacy of existence, these philosophers have helped to redefine the nature of human existence and the role of the individual in creating meaning and purpose in life.
• Their ideas have also influenced various fields, including literature, psychology, theology, and the arts, demonstrating the enduring relevance and significance of existentialist philosophy.

VIII. Criticisms and Debates

Major criticisms of Existentialism and the concepts of existence and essence

• Absurdity and nihilism: Critics argue that existentialism’s emphasis on individual freedom and choice can lead to a sense of absurdity and nihilism, as individuals struggle to find meaning and purpose in a seemingly meaningless world.
• Subjectivism and relativism: Existentialism’s focus on individual subjectivity and personal experience has been criticized for promoting subjectivism and relativism, potentially undermining the possibility of objective truth and shared moral values.
• Neglect of social and political issues: Some critics argue that existentialism’s focus on individual existence and personal responsibility can lead to a neglect of social and political issues, potentially reinforcing individualism and alienation.
• Pessimism and despair: Existentialism’s exploration of themes such as anxiety, despair, and the confrontation with death has been criticized for promoting a pessimistic and despairing view of human existence.

Responses to these criticisms by Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger

• Kierkegaard: In response to the criticism of absurdity and nihilism, Kierkegaard emphasized the importance of faith and the “leap of faith” as a way to find meaning and purpose in life. He argued that individuals must confront the uncertainty and paradoxes of existence and make a personal commitment to a meaningful life.
• Sartre: Sartre addressed the criticism of subjectivism and relativism by arguing that individuals are responsible for creating their own values and moral principles through their actions and choices. He maintained that existentialism does not deny the existence of objective truth but emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and responsibility in determining one’s own values.
• Heidegger: Heidegger’s response to the criticism of neglecting social and political issues can be found in his later works, where he explored the impact of technology, language, and social structures on human existence. He argued that individuals must engage with the world and confront the challenges posed by modern society in order to live an authentic and meaningful life.

Contemporary debates surrounding existence and essence in existentialist philosophy

• Existentialism and postmodernism: Some contemporary philosophers have argued that existentialism shares common ground with postmodernism, particularly in its emphasis on individual subjectivity, the rejection of grand narratives, and the questioning of objective truth. Others argue that existentialism’s focus on personal responsibility and authenticity distinguishes it from postmodernism’s more radical skepticism and relativism.
• Existentialism and feminism: Feminist philosophers have engaged with existentialist ideas, exploring the ways in which gender, identity, and social norms shape individual existence and the possibilities for freedom and authenticity. Some feminist critics argue that existentialism’s emphasis on individualism and personal responsibility can be limiting, while others find value in its focus on personal choice and self-determination.
• Existentialism and environmentalism: Environmental philosophers have drawn on existentialist ideas to explore the relationship between human existence and the natural world, examining the ethical and existential implications of environmental degradation and the need for a more sustainable and responsible way of life.
• Existentialism and neuroscience: Recent developments in neuroscience and cognitive science have raised questions about the nature of human existence, consciousness, and free will, prompting new debates about the relevance and implications of existentialist ideas in light of these scientific discoveries.

IX. Existence, Essence, and Contemporary Philosophy

The influence of Existentialism on other philosophical movements

• Existentialism has had a significant impact on various philosophical movements and disciplines, both directly and indirectly.
• Phenomenology: Existentialism shares a close relationship with phenomenology, a philosophical movement that focuses on the study of human experience and consciousness. Key phenomenologists, such as Edmund Husserl and Maurice Merleau-Ponty, have influenced existentialist thought, and vice versa.
• Post-structuralism: Post-structuralist thinkers, such as Jacques Derrida and Michel Foucault, have drawn on existentialist ideas in their critiques of traditional philosophical concepts and structures. They share existentialism’s emphasis on individual subjectivity, the instability of meaning, and the rejection of essentialism.
• Psychoanalysis: Existentialism has also influenced the field of psychoanalysis, particularly through the work of Rollo May and Irvin Yalom. Existential psychotherapy focuses on the individual’s experience of anxiety, freedom, responsibility, and the search for meaning in life.
• Theology: Existentialist themes have been incorporated into various religious and theological perspectives, such as Christian existentialism (e.g., Paul Tillich, Karl Barth) and Jewish existentialism (e.g., Martin Buber, Emmanuel Levinas). These thinkers explore the relationship between faith, individual existence, and the search for meaning in a complex and uncertain world.

The relevance of existence and essence in contemporary philosophical discussions

• Existentialism’s emphasis on existence and essence continues to be relevant in contemporary philosophical discussions, particularly in the areas of personal identity, ethics, and metaphysics.
• Personal identity: The existentialist focus on individual existence and the creation of one’s own essence has influenced contemporary debates on personal identity, selfhood, and authenticity. Questions about the nature of the self, the role of personal choice, and the impact of social and cultural factors on identity are central to these discussions.
• Ethics: Existentialism’s emphasis on personal responsibility, freedom, and the creation of one’s own values has had a lasting impact on ethical theory. Contemporary ethical debates often address the role of individual choice and responsibility in determining moral principles and the importance of authenticity in ethical decision-making.
• Metaphysics: The existentialist critique of essentialism and the primacy of existence over essence have influenced contemporary metaphysical debates on the nature of reality, the relationship between mind and body, and the question of free will. Existentialist ideas continue to challenge traditional metaphysical assumptions and contribute to ongoing philosophical discussions.

X. Conclusion

Recap of the main points covered in the course module

• Existentialism is a philosophical movement that emphasizes individual existence, freedom, and choice, with a focus on the concepts of existence and essence.
• Existence refers to the state or fact of being, while essence refers to the inherent nature or characteristics of something.
• Key existentialist philosophers, such as Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger, challenge the traditional view that essence precedes existence, arguing instead that existence is primary and individuals create their own essence through their choices and actions.
• Kierkegaard’s existentialist philosophy emphasizes individual subjectivity, faith, and the “leap of faith” in the face of uncertainty.
• Sartre’s existentialism focuses on the idea that “existence precedes essence,” and explores themes of freedom, responsibility, and authenticity.
• Heidegger’s existentialist philosophy centers on the concept of “Being” (Dasein) and the individual’s experience of existence in the world.

The enduring significance of Existence and Essence in existentialist philosophy

• The concepts of existence and essence remain central to existentialist thought, as they highlight the importance of personal freedom, responsibility, and authenticity.
• Existentialism has had a significant impact on various fields, including literature, psychology, theology, and the arts, and continues to influence contemporary philosophical discussions.
• The ideas of Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger have shaped our understanding of human existence and the nature of reality, challenging traditional philosophical assumptions and encouraging a more individualistic and subjective approach to understanding the world.

1. Analyze the differences between Kierkegaard’s, Sartre’s, and Heidegger’s views on the relationship between existence and essence, and discuss the implications of their perspectives on individual freedom and responsibility. (250 words)
2. Critically evaluate the existentialist response to the criticisms of absurdity, nihilism, subjectivism, and relativism. How do Kierkegaard, Sartre, and Heidegger address these criticisms in their respective works? (250 words)
3. Examine the influence of existentialism on contemporary philosophical movements such as postmodernism, feminism, and environmentalism. Discuss the ways in which existentialist ideas have shaped these movements and their approaches to existence and essence. (250 words)