I. Introduction – Definition of Avidyâ

The Concept of Ignorance in Vedantic Philosophy

• Avidyâ can be translated as “ignorance” or “nescience.”
• It fundamentally signifies a lack of knowledge, more specifically, the non-awareness of one’s true self.
• Within the framework of Vedanta, it represents our misconceptions about our true nature and the ultimate reality.
• This ignorance is not merely a lack of knowledge but a misperception where something is perceived contrary to its true nature.
• Avidyâ is the primary cause of human suffering and the cycle of birth and death known as Samsara.
• The realization of the self or Atman is the direct antidote to Avidyâ, leading to Moksha or liberation.

Differentiating Avidyâ from Other Key Vedantic Terms Already Discussed

• Brahman:
  • The ultimate reality or cosmic spirit in Vedanta.
  • It is the unchanging, infinite, immanent, and transcendent reality which is the Divine Ground of all existence.
  • While Brahman represents the ultimate truth, Avidyâ is the veil that hides this truth from individual souls or Jivas.
• Îúvara:
  • The personalized aspect of Brahman, often related to the concept of a deity or God.
  • He is the cosmic controller, while Avidyâ is the force that masks the individual soul’s understanding of this divine play.
• Âtman:
  • The individual soul or self, which is, in essence, a reflection of Brahman in the individual.
  • Avidyâ keeps the Âtman ignorant of its divine and true nature, leading to a cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
• Jiva:
  • The embodied soul that has not yet realized its identity with Brahman.
  • It’s the individual living being that, due to Avidyâ, remains ignorant of its true self and gets entangled in the material world or Samsara.
• Jagat:
  • Refers to the world or universe, the ever-changing reality which is in contrast to the unchanging Brahman.
  • Avidyâ causes the Jiva to perceive the world as real and get attached to it, forgetting its true nature.
• Mâyâ:
  • The cosmic illusion or the power of the divine to make the unreal appear real.
  • Often intertwined with Avidyâ, while Mâyâ is the universal illusion, Avidyâ is the individual’s ignorance or misperception.

The Significance of Understanding Avidyâ for a Holistic Comprehension of Vedânta

• Foundational concept: Understanding Avidyâ is essential as it’s foundational to the philosophy of Vedanta. It’s the starting point that explains the human condition of suffering and entanglement in the material world.
• Path to liberation: Recognizing Avidyâ is the first step towards self-realization. Once an individual understands the nature of this ignorance, they can embark on the journey to dispel it and realize their true nature.
• Connection to other concepts: A thorough understanding of Avidyâ helps in grasping other related concepts in Vedanta. It links the individual’s ignorance to the cosmic illusion of Mâyâ, the concept of the world (Jagat), and the ultimate reality (Brahman).
• Interplay of knowledge and ignorance: In Vedanta, knowledge (Vidya) and ignorance (Avidyâ) are constantly at play. Avidyâ is not just the absence of knowledge but active misperception. Recognizing this is key to delving deep into Vedantic studies.
• Modern relevance: The idea of Avidyâ is not just an ancient concept but holds immense relevance today. In the age of information, understanding the difference between true knowledge and ignorance is crucial.

II. Historical Context and Evolution

Origin of the term Avidyâ

• The concept of Avidyâ primarily originates from ancient Indian scriptures.
• Upanishads, a subset of Vedas, hold the earliest mentions of this term.
  • Brihadaranyaka Upanishad: Provides an elaborate description of Avidyâ as ignorance.
  • Isha Upanishad: Discusses Avidyâ in the context of the duality of knowledge and ignorance.
  • The Vedas, including Rigveda, use Avidyâ to denote a state of not knowing.
  • The term gradually develops over time and finds consistent mentions in later Vedic and post-Vedic texts.

How the understanding of Avidyâ has evolved over time

• Ancient era:
  • Initial understanding was superficial, describing it as mere absence of knowledge.
  • As Upanishads were explored, the depth of Avidyâ’s philosophical significance became evident.
• Medieval era:
  • Many Indian philosophical schools, like the Advaita Vedanta school, interpreted Avidyâ as a cosmic illusion.
  • It was seen as the primary barrier to realizing one’s true self, leading to the cycle of birth and death.
  • Dvaita Vedanta, in contrast, presented Avidyâ as inherent to individual souls, differing from the universal ignorance.
• Modern era:
  • The concept has been further refined to understand the psychological implications of Avidyâ in human behavior.
  • Modern thinkers have used Avidyâ to describe the cognitive biases, errors in human judgment, and perceptual illusions.

Influence of prominent philosophers and sages

• Adi Shankaracharya: Renowned philosopher who founded the Advaita Vedanta school.
  • He emphasized the role of Avidyâ in keeping the individual soul away from realizing its Brahmanic nature.
  • Shankaracharya posited that Moksha or liberation can be achieved by dispelling Avidyâ and recognizing the non-dual nature of Atman and Brahman.
• Ramanuja: The proponent of Vishishtadvaita school.
  • Refined the concept by differentiating between individual ignorance and cosmic ignorance.
  • Argued that Avidyâ doesn’t completely veil the Atman, but distorts its perception.
• Swami Vivekananda: Modern-era philosopher and disciple of Ramakrishna Paramahamsa.
  • Highlighted the need to rise above Avidyâ in order to achieve true freedom, not just spiritually but also in the material world.
  • His emphasis was on the role of knowledge and self-awareness in dispelling ignorance.
• Swami Sivananda: Contributed to the discourse by providing practical ways to understand and overcome Avidyâ.
  • He laid stress on meditation, devotion, and righteous action as tools to pierce through the veil of ignorance.

The understanding of Avidyâ has been a continuously evolving journey. Over time, with the contributions of several philosophers and sages, the multi-layered concept has been dissected and explored, providing invaluable insights into the human psyche and the quest for self-realization.

III. Avidyâ in Different Schools of Vedânta

Comparison Across Schools

Specific interpretations of Avidyâ

• Advaita Vedânta
  • Introduced by Adi Shankaracharya.
  • Sees Avidyâ as the primary reason for an individual’s illusion, which creates a false sense of duality between Brahman (universal consciousness) and Atman (individual soul).
  • The ultimate aim is to transcend Avidyâ and realize the inherent oneness of Atman and Brahman.
• Dvaita Vedânta
  • Established by Madhvacharya.
  • Believes that Avidyâ is inherent in individual souls and is different from the cosmic illusion.
  • The path to knowledge is through pure devotion and surrender to God, which helps in removing the ignorance intrinsic to the soul.
• Vishishtadvaita
  • Propounded by Ramanuja.
  • Considers Avidyâ as something that doesn’t completely veil the soul’s inherent qualities but slightly modifies its perception.
  • A soul can overcome the effects of Avidyâ by aligning with the will of God through devotion and surrender.

Ramifications of these interpretations

• Advaita Vedânta
  • Establishes that self-realization is the direct path to dispel ignorance.
  • Advocates for Jnana Yoga (path of knowledge) as the primary method to achieve this realization.
  • Achieving Moksha (liberation) means transcending Avidyâ and realizing the inherent unity of existence.
• Dvaita Vedânta
  • Places importance on Bhakti Yoga (path of devotion) as the primary means to overcome ignorance.
  • Emphasizes the distinct roles of the soul, God, and the material world, each having its own reality.
  • Achieving Moksha means attaining an eternal abode in the company of the divine, away from the world of ignorance.
• Vishishtadvaita
  • Asserts that through devotion and surrender to God, one can align their will with that of the divine, which naturally dispels ignorance.
  • Even while living in the material world, one can achieve a state of eternal bliss by cultivating a personal relationship with the divine.
  • Moksha is seen as a state of eternal servitude and bliss in the presence of the divine.

IV. The Mechanics of Avidyâ

The Origin and Causation

• Avidyâ, in its simplest form, denotes ignorance or lack of knowledge, especially concerning the self’s true nature in relation to the universe.
• The genesis of Avidyâ can be traced back to ancient Vedic literature, where it is often equated with darkness or illusion.
• Multiple theories are propounded by various philosophical schools concerning the origin of Avidyâ:
  • Some believe it’s an intrinsic quality of human souls, obscuring the real nature of self.
  • Others argue it’s a cosmic phenomenon that affects all beings, causing a pervasive state of forgetfulness or unawareness.
  • A prevalent thought, especially in Vedantic schools, is that Avidyâ arises due to one’s association with the material world and sensory experiences.
  • Avidyâ is sometimes considered to be the result of one’s past actions or karmas, leading to an obscured understanding in subsequent lifetimes.
  • Another perspective is the cyclical nature of Avidyâ, wherein ignorance begets actions, and these actions, in turn, reinforce ignorance.

How Avidyâ affects perception

• The term Avidyâ often translates to a veil or screen that obscures true understanding.
• When the intellect is covered by this veil:
  • One’s perceptions are distorted, leading to misinterpretations of reality.
  • There’s a mistaken identification with the body and mind, leading to a belief in one’s limited self, instead of recognizing the expansive nature of one’s true self.
  • The differentiation between the self (Atman) and the universal spirit (Brahman) becomes blurred.
  • Mundane and transient pleasures are pursued, keeping individuals enmeshed in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth.
  • Actions are performed based on these flawed perceptions, leading to accumulated karmas.
• Avidyâ thus leads to a state where one is ensnared in the cycle of Samsara – a continuous loop of birth, suffering, death, and rebirth.

Layers of Avidyâ

• Just as an onion has multiple layers, Avidyâ too operates on several levels of ignorance, each deepening the illusion.
  • Outermost Layer: This represents basic unawareness about worldly matters, easily rectifiable through education and learning.
  • Intermediate Layers: These are deeper, representing misconceptions about societal norms, ethics, and one’s role in the greater scheme of things.
  • Inner Layers: At this level, Avidyâ obscures spiritual truths, causing individuals to be unaware of their divine nature and potential.
  • Core of Avidyâ: Represents the most profound level of ignorance, where one’s understanding of self and the universal spirit is entirely blurred.
• Each layer has its own intricacies and challenges. To pierce through them, varied approaches are recommended:
  • Knowledge and learning for the outermost layer.
  • Self-introspection and societal engagement for the intermediate layers.
  • Spiritual practices, meditation, and guidance from enlightened beings for the innermost layers.
• Dispelling Avidyâ, especially at its core, leads to Moksha or liberation, where one breaks free from the shackles of ignorance and realizes their true nature.

V. Avidyâ and Human Experience

Avidyâ in daily life

• Avidyâ, in its essence, is not merely the absence of knowledge but also a state of misconceived reality.
• In day-to-day experiences, it’s observed as:
  • People making choices based on incomplete information.
  • Misunderstanding or misinterpreting others’ intentions and actions.
  • Making assumptions about unfamiliar situations or cultures.
  • In the Indian context, practices like superstitions or adherence to dogmatic beliefs without questioning.
• Personal relations often get strained due to miscommunication, a direct result of Avidyâ.
• Choices leading to unhealthy lifestyles (like excessive consumption of junk food, alcohol, or drugs) stem from ignorance about the consequences.
• Economic decisions made without understanding the full implications can lead to financial distress.
• People often wear metaphorical “rose-tinted glasses”, perceiving the world as they wish to, instead of its true nature.

Breaking down Avidyâ

• Several aspects of ignorance affect human life:
  • Intellectual Avidyâ: Ignorance at the thought level. Examples include harboring prejudiced views, forming opinions without analysis.
  • Emotional Avidyâ: This is seen when one is unable to process or control emotions. A common scene in India is the inability to cope with academic pressures, leading to mental health issues.
  • Perceptual Avidyâ: Misinterpreting sensory information. For instance, a rope mistaken for a snake in dim light.
  • Moral Avidyâ: Lack of clarity about right or wrong. Historical events like the partition of India witnessed acts driven by moral ignorance.
• In contemporary society, Avidyâ is manifested in:
  • Fake news proliferation and misinformation.
  • Stereotyping and profiling based on ethnicity or religion.
  • Blindly following political ideologies without understanding their foundational principles.

Overcoming Avidyâ

• Vedânta offers profound insights into tackling the roots of ignorance:
  • Jñâna Yoga (Path of Knowledge): Involves deep introspection and study of scriptures to attain self-awareness and understanding of the universe.
  • Bhakti Yoga (Path of Devotion): Building a deep bond with a higher power, leading to self-purification. India has a rich tradition of bhakti movements like the Alvars and Nayanars.
  • Karma Yoga (Path of Action): Performing one’s duty without attachment to results purifies the mind and reduces Avidyâ.
  • Dhyâna (Meditation): Regular practice helps in decluttering the mind and realizing the self. Techniques like Vipassana, which has its origins in India, are globally recognized for providing clarity.
• The guidance of a Guru (spiritual teacher) is often emphasized in Indian traditions to dispel ignorance. Figures like Swami Vivekananda stressed the importance of a Guru in spiritual journeys.
• Engaging in Satsang (congregation or community) helps in collective upliftment, leading to mutual growth and understanding.
• Reading sacred texts: The Bhagavad Gita, Upanishads, and Brahma Sutras provide insights into understanding the self and the cosmos.
• Service to humanity is considered a means to overcome ignorance, as it fosters empathy and understanding. Mother Teresa’s work in India is an epitome of this principle.

VI. Avidyâ and the Concept of Reality

The Dualistic Play: How Avidyâ affects the perception of reality and the dualistic world

• Avidyâ stands as the fundamental ignorance obstructing our clear vision of reality.
• Our understanding of the world is tainted by dualism because of Avidyâ.
• This dualistic perception leads to distinctions like good vs bad, right vs wrong, and self vs other.
• Indian philosophy, especially in Advaita Vedânta, posits that the true nature of reality is non-dual, but Avidyâ creates an illusory division.
• The Dvaita school of thought, founded by Madhvâcârya, supports dualistic interpretation, further illuminating the play of Avidyâ in different schools of thought.
• This dualistic worldview affects human emotions, causing joy, sorrow, love, and hatred based on false perceptions.

Reality under the veil: The world as perceived with Avidyâ versus the true nature of reality

• With Avidyâ, the world is seen through a veil of ignorance, leading to misconceptions and misunderstandings.
• The Brahman, as described in Vedânta, is the absolute reality but remains hidden because of Avidyâ.
• Avidyâ results in identifying with the body, mind, and ego, overlooking the pure self or Âtman.
• The world under Avidyâ is transient, changing, and filled with suffering.
• Contrarily, the true nature of reality, as expressed in the Upanishads, is eternal, unchanging, and blissful.
• Indian sages and seers, like Adi Sankarâcârya, have spoken extensively about lifting the veil of Avidyâ to realize the true nature of the universe.

VII. The Resolution of Avidyâ

The path to knowledge: How Vedânta suggests one can overcome Avidyâ

• Vedânta, one of the six orthodox schools of Hindu philosophy, offers a systematic approach to spiritual realization and the dissolution of Avidyâ.
• Vedânta primarily draws its teachings from the Upanishads, ancient Indian scriptures that form the latter part of the Vedic texts.
• One of the central teachings of Vedânta is the non-dual nature of reality, emphasizing that the individual soul (Atman) is identical to the universal soul (Brahman).
• Overcoming Avidyâ, according to Vedânta, requires a shift from a dualistic perception of the world to a non-dualistic understanding.
• The Guru-Shishya tradition, where knowledge is transmitted from a realized master (guru) to a dedicated disciple (shishya), plays a significant role in this journey.
• Traditional Vedânta study involves Shravana (listening to the scriptures), Manana (reflecting upon the teachings), and Nididhyasana (deep contemplation).

Role of self-inquiry and meditation: Practices that aid in piercing the veil of ignorance

• Self-inquiry (Atma Vichara) is a foundational practice in the Vedânta tradition, as advocated by sages like Ramana Maharshi.
  • It involves repeatedly asking the question, “Who am I?” until the true nature of the self is realized.
  • This method helps in detaching oneself from the body, mind, and ego, which are often sources of ignorance.
• Meditation (Dhyana) has been revered as a significant practice in Indian spiritual traditions.
  • Its goal in the context of Vedânta is to cultivate a steady mind that can perceive the truth without distortions.
  • Techniques like Trataka (concentrated gazing) and Anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing) are often employed.
• The importance of Satsang, or association with truth-seekers, is also emphasized. Being in the company of like-minded individuals helps reinforce the teachings and maintain spiritual discipline.

The end of Avidyâ: Describing the state of enlightenment or self-realization where Avidyâ is completely dispelled

• Enlightenment, also known as Moksha or self-realization, signifies the state where Avidyâ has been entirely uprooted.
• In this state, the illusory nature of the world is fully recognized, and one remains in continuous awareness of the Atman’s unity with Brahman.
• Enlightened beings often describe this state as Sat-Chit-Ananda: existence, consciousness, and bliss.
• Such individuals no longer suffer from the pangs of samsara (the cycle of birth and death) and are said to have attained liberation.
• The lives of saints like Adi Shankaracharya, Swami Vivekananda, and Sri Ramakrishna exemplify this state of being.
• An enlightened individual often exhibits qualities like unconditional love, unwavering peace, and profound wisdom.
• Though the realization is internal, its effects permeate all aspects of an individual’s life, resulting in selfless service, boundless compassion, and a deep sense of purpose.

VIII. Critical Analysis of Avidyâ

Debates and criticisms

• Avidyâ, as a concept, has evoked much debate and discourse in the academic arena.
• Philosophers, theologians, and scholars have raised concerns and contentions regarding its understanding, interpretation, and application.
• Some scholars argue that Avidyâ can lead to nihilism if misunderstood. The idea is that considering the world as an illusion might lead to the negation of worldly responsibilities.
• Vijnanavada school of Buddhism had disagreements with Vedântic concept of Avidyâ. They propose a consciousness-only view which contradicts the illusionary world view of Avidyâ.
• Nyaya and Vaisheshika schools of Indian philosophy, while acknowledging ignorance, do not necessarily equate it to Avidyâ as understood in Vedânta.
• Critics say that Avidyâ has been used to foster escapism, detaching individuals from societal obligations, considering it all as ‘illusory’.
• Some scholars opine that Avidyâ, being a negative concept (denoting ignorance), might not offer a comprehensive approach to reality as it focuses only on what is not, rather than what is.

Avidyâ in a modern context

• The modern age, characterized by rapid technological advancements and information overflow, poses unique challenges to ancient philosophical concepts, including Avidyâ.
• Avidyâ’s concept finds relevance in addressing the existential crisis faced by many in the current era. The feeling of detachment and alienation can be understood through the lens of Avidyâ.
• The fast-paced modern life, driven by desires and materialism, can be seen as amplifying Avidyâ, distancing individuals from their true self.
• Contemporary psychology finds parallels in the concept of Avidyâ. Cognitive biases, where individuals perceive reality based on flawed perceptions, can be related to Avidyâ.
• The rise in mental health issues, including depression and anxiety, highlights the need to reconnect with one’s inner self, a journey that Avidyâ’s understanding can potentially aid.
• Avidyâ’s understanding can also guide individuals in a digital age where ‘virtual’ and ‘real’ lines blur, creating a world of augmented reality which aligns with the concept of ‘illusion’ as proposed by Avidyâ.

The limitations of Avidyâ

• Philosophically, Avidyâ is a robust concept, but it does have its limitations when applied universally.
• Its dualistic premise, distinguishing between the real and the unreal, may not resonate with monistic or non-dual philosophies that see everything as one.
• Avidyâ’s emphasis on ‘ignorance’ sometimes shadows the potential of ‘knowledge’. Critics argue that it doesn’t provide a full picture of existence by focusing only on the ignorance aspect.
• The concept, if misinterpreted, can lead to passivity, making individuals complacent in their ignorance rather than actively seeking enlightenment.
• Avidyâ, while addressing individual ignorance, doesn’t delve deep into collective ignorance or societal illusions.
• Some critics highlight that Avidyâ lacks a comprehensive approach to morality and ethics. By viewing the world as an illusion, it may inadvertently downplay the importance of ethical actions in the real world.

IX. Comparative Study with Other Philosophical Traditions

Avidyâ and the Western notion of ignorance: Drawing parallels and contrasts

• Avidyâ, a term deeply rooted in Indian Vedantic philosophy, translates to “ignorance” or “nescience.”
• Western understanding of ignorance mainly denotes a lack of knowledge or unawareness.
• Avidyâ, on the other hand, is multifaceted, implying not just unawareness but also a misunderstanding of the true nature of reality.
• Western ignorance is often seen as rectifiable through education and learning.
• Avidyâ is perceived as a veil that obscures the ultimate truth and requires deep introspection and spiritual practices to dispel.
• Socrates, a western philosopher, professed that knowing one’s own ignorance is the beginning of wisdom, resonating with Vedantic principles.
• The West often approaches ignorance from a rational perspective, using logical tools to overcome it.
• In Vedanta, while intellectual understanding is crucial, transcending Avidyâ necessitates experiential realization.

Ignorance in different traditions: Buddhism, Taoism, and Abrahamic religions

• Buddhism:
  • Ignorance (Avidyâ in Pali/Sanskrit) is the root cause of suffering in the Buddhist Four Noble Truths.
  • It refers to ignorance of the nature of reality, primarily about the Three Marks of Existence: impermanence, suffering, and the absence of self.
  • To dispel ignorance, the Eightfold Path is prescribed, emphasizing ethical conduct, mental discipline, and wisdom.
• Taoism:
  • This ancient Chinese tradition speaks of the Tao, the fundamental principle that is the source of all existence.
  • Ignorance in Taoism is a disconnection from the Tao.
  • Aligning with the Tao, through practices like Tai Chi and meditation, restores harmony and understanding.
• Abrahamic religions:
  • Ignorance in these traditions (Christianity, Islam, Judaism) often signifies a disconnection from God.
  • Sin, resulting from ignorance, is rectified through repentance and adherence to religious teachings.
  • Prophets and scriptures guide followers in dispelling ignorance and drawing closer to God.

Universal elements: Identifying common threads across different philosophies

• All traditions acknowledge ignorance as a fundamental human challenge.
• Ignorance is universally perceived as a barrier to attaining the ultimate truth or realization.
• Each tradition prescribes a path to overcome ignorance, be it through spiritual practices, adherence to moral codes, or intellectual pursuits.
• There’s a universal acceptance that overcoming ignorance leads to a state of enlightenment, harmony, or closeness to the divine.
• Philosophies, despite their diverse origins, converge on the principle that self-awareness and introspection are essential tools in the journey to dispel ignorance.

X. Conclusion

The enduring significance of Avidyâ: Why this concept remains central to understanding Vedânta

• Avidyâ is not merely a term; it encapsulates a profound philosophical concept deeply rooted in the Indian spiritual tradition.
• It stands as a cornerstone in the Vedânta philosophy, acting as a bridge between the individual soul (Jiva) and the ultimate reality (Brahman).
• By understanding Avidyâ, one unravels the complexities of human existence, the nature of reality, and the interplay between knowledge and ignorance.
• The idea of Avidyâ paves the way to appreciate the depth of Vedantic teachings, shedding light on concepts like Maya, Karma, and Dharma.
• Many renowned Indian philosophers, including Adi Shankaracharya, have placed significant emphasis on Avidyâ, underscoring its pivotal role in spiritual discourse.
• Over the millennia, Avidyâ has remained a beacon, guiding seekers on the path of self-realization and introspection.

Future prospects: Areas of research and study that can further the understanding of Avidyâ

• The modern world, with its technological advancements and evolving paradigms, presents an array of opportunities to delve deeper into Avidyâ.
• Interdisciplinary studies: Combining neuroscience, psychology, and Vedânta can offer a fresh perspective on how the human mind perceives reality and its susceptibility to Avidyâ.
• Comparative studies with other philosophies: As seen in previous sections, exploring Avidyâ in parallel with concepts from other traditions can yield valuable insights.
• Advancements in meditation and mindfulness practices offer tools to experience and transcend Avidyâ, warranting in-depth research.
• Exploring the role of Avidyâ in contemporary society: Understanding its manifestation in modern challenges like mental health issues, societal norms, and cultural paradigms.
• With globalization, the dissemination of Vedantic principles to the west provides fertile ground for collaborative research on Avidyâ.

Final thoughts: The role of Avidyâ in the personal and collective journey towards enlightenment

• At the individual level, recognizing and confronting Avidyâ becomes the first step towards self-awareness and spiritual growth.
• Avidyâ acts as both a challenge and a guide, pushing individuals to question, introspect, and eventually transcend their limited understanding.
• In the collective human experience, Avidyâ is reminiscent of the shared struggles and aspirations. Communities, societies, and civilizations have, at various points, grappled with the veils of ignorance and sought enlightenment.
• The teachings on Avidyâ serve as a universal call, urging humanity to move from fragmented perceptions to a holistic understanding.
• Embracing Avidyâ does not signify resignation but represents a proactive journey, filled with curiosity, resilience, and a relentless quest for truth.

1. How have the interpretations of Avidyâ evolved over time, and what have been the major influences on its current understanding? (250 words)
2. Examine the differences in how the Advaita, Dvaita, and Vishishtadvaita schools of Vedânta perceive and describe Avidyâ. (250 words)
3. Critically analyze the relevance and application of the concept of Avidyâ in the 21st century. (250 words)