11.9 The Communist Party of India

I. Origins and Early Development of the Communist Party of India

Founding of CPI

• Formation in Tashkent (1920): The Communist Party of India (CPI) was founded on October 17, 1920, in Tashkent, by M.N. Roy and other Indian revolutionaries. This event marked the beginning of the organized communist movement in India.
• Role of M.N. Roy: M.N. Roy, a prominent Indian revolutionary and intellectual, played a crucial role in the establishment of the CPI. He was instrumental in formulating the party’s initial strategies and objectives.
• Kanpur Conference (1925): The Kanpur Conference, held in December 1925, was a significant event that marked the official establishment of the CPI within India. This conference brought together various communist groups and individuals to form a unified party.
• Objectives: The primary objectives of the CPI were to establish a workers’ and peasants’ republic in India and to exclude members of communal organizations. The party aimed to create a socialist state through revolutionary means.

Early Activities

• Involvement in Workers’ and Peasants’ Party (WPP): The CPI was actively involved in the Workers’ and Peasants’ Party (WPP), which operated within the Indian National Congress from 1925 to 1929. This involvement helped the CPI to mobilize the working class and peasants.
• Protests against Nehru Report (1928): The CPI protested against the Nehru Report of 1928, which proposed constitutional reforms for India. The party viewed the report as inadequate and sought more radical changes.
• Role in Labor Movements: The CPI played a significant role in organizing labor movements, including the Bombay textile strike of 1928. The party also led various general strikes, aiming to mobilize workers against colonial exploitation and build a mass base for the communist movement.

Initial Challenges

• British Repression: The CPI faced severe repression from the British colonial authorities. The party’s activities were closely monitored, and its members were often arrested and imprisoned.
• Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929): One of the most notable instances of repression was the Meerut Conspiracy Case of 1929. Several communist leaders were arrested and tried for conspiring to overthrow the British government. This case severely hampered the party’s activities.
• Underground Operations: Due to the intense repression, the CPI had to operate underground. The party resorted to clandestine activities, including distributing propaganda and organizing secret meetings, to continue its work.

II. CPI and the Indian Independence Movement

Anti-colonial struggle

• Participation in protests and strikes: The Communist Party of India (CPI) actively participated in numerous protests and strikes against British rule. They organized mass demonstrations, labor strikes, and peasant uprisings to mobilize the working class and peasants.
• Mobilization of peasants and workers: CPI played a crucial role in mobilizing peasants and workers across India. They aimed to unite these groups against colonial exploitation and oppressive landlords.
• Opposition to British policies: CPI consistently opposed British colonial policies. They protested against repressive measures, unfair labor practices, and exploitative economic policies implemented by the British authorities.

Relationship with Indian National Congress

• Joining Congress Socialist Party (CSP): In the early years, CPI members joined the Congress Socialist Party (CSP) to work within the Indian National Congress. This alliance aimed to radicalize the Congress and push for more revolutionary policies.
• Expulsion from CSP: In 1940, the National Executive of CSP decided to expel all communists from the party. This decision was influenced by ideological differences and the growing influence of communists within the CSP.
• Dual approach towards Congress governments: CPI adopted a dual approach towards Congress governments. While they collaborated with Congress on certain issues, they also criticized and opposed Congress policies that they deemed insufficiently radical or pro-capitalist.

Legalization and World War II

• CPI’s stance on the war: Initially, CPI opposed World War II, viewing it as an imperialist conflict. They organized anti-war demonstrations and strikes across India.
• Shift to supporting Allied forces: After the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941, CPI shifted its stance and began supporting the Allied forces. This change was influenced by the Soviet Union’s involvement in the war against fascism.
• Impact on CPI’s activities and membership: The shift in stance led to the legalization of CPI in 1942. The party’s membership grew significantly as they actively participated in the war effort. However, this also led to internal conflicts and criticism from other nationalist groups.

III. CPI’s Role in Mass Movements

Peasant movements

• Formation of All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS): The All India Kisan Sabha, also known as Akhil Bharatiya Kisan Sabha, was founded in 1936 at the Indian National Congress Lucknow Session by Sahajanand Saraswati. The organization aimed to mobilize peasants and address their grievances against the zamindari system.
• Major agitations: The CPI led significant peasant agitations in various regions including Bengal, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, and Punjab. These movements were crucial in challenging feudal practices and advocating for land reforms.
• Leadership of Sahajanand Saraswati: Sahajanand Saraswati, a prominent leader in the peasant movement, played a key role in organizing and leading the All India Kisan Sabha. He was instrumental in mobilizing peasants and articulating their demands for land rights and abolition of the zamindari system.

Labor movements

• Formation of All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC): The All India Trade Union Congress, founded in 1920, served as the labor wing of the CPI. It played a significant role in organizing industrial workers and advocating for their rights.
• Strikes and protests during and post-World War II: The CPI organized numerous strikes and protests during and after World War II. These actions were aimed at improving labor conditions, securing better wages, and opposing colonial exploitation.
• Role in industrial actions: The CPI was actively involved in various industrial actions, including strikes in textile mills, railways, and other key industries. These efforts were crucial in building a strong labor movement and challenging colonial economic policies.

Student and cultural movements

• Formation of All India Students’ Federation (AISF): The All India Students’ Federation, established in 1936, served as the student wing of the CPI. It played a pivotal role in mobilizing students for the independence movement and advocating for educational reforms.
• Progressive Writers’ Association (PWA): The Progressive Writers’ Association, founded in 1936, was a collective of writers and intellectuals aligned with the CPI. They aimed to use literature as a tool for social change and to promote progressive ideas.
• Indian People’s Theatre Association (IPTA): The Indian People’s Theatre Association, established in 1943, was a cultural wing of the CPI. It used theater and performing arts to raise awareness about social issues and mobilize support for the independence movement.

IV. CPI’s Political Strategies and Ideological Debates

Post-independence challenges

• Debate on engagement with new Indian state: After India’s independence in 1947, the Communist Party of India (CPI) faced significant internal debates on how to engage with the newly formed Indian state. The party was divided on whether to support the government or to continue revolutionary activities.
• Question of armed struggle vs. democratic participation: A major point of contention within the CPI was whether to pursue an armed struggle or to participate in the democratic process. Some members advocated for a violent revolution, while others believed in working within the parliamentary framework.
• Split in CPI (1964) leading to formation of CPI(M): In 1964, ideological differences led to a split in the CPI, resulting in the formation of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). The split was primarily due to disagreements over the party’s approach towards the Indian state and its strategies for achieving socialism.

Ideological differences

• Soviet vs. Chinese influence: The CPI was influenced by both Soviet and Chinese models of communism. The Soviet model emphasized working within the parliamentary system, while the Chinese model advocated for armed struggle and revolution.
• Internal debates on economic policies and foreign relations: Within the CPI, there were significant debates on economic policies and foreign relations. Some members supported Soviet-style state-controlled economy, while others leaned towards Chinese-style agrarian revolution.
• Impact of Sino-Indian War (1962): The Sino-Indian War of 1962 had a profound impact on the CPI. The war exacerbated internal divisions, with some members supporting China and others supporting India. This conflict further deepened the ideological rift within the party.

Formation of CPI(M)

• Reasons for the split: The split in the CPI in 1964 was driven by ideological differences, particularly regarding the party’s approach towards the Indian state and its strategies for achieving socialism. The left-wing faction, which later formed CPI(M), opposed the pro-Soviet stance of the CPI leadership.
• Key figures and their roles: Prominent leaders who played crucial roles in the formation of CPI(M) included E.M.S. Namboodiripad, A.K. Gopalan, and B.T. Ranadive. These leaders were instrumental in shaping the party’s ideology and strategies.
• Initial activities and ideological stance: After its formation, CPI(M) focused on building a mass base through agrarian movements and labor strikes. The party adopted a more radical stance compared to CPI, advocating for a people’s democratic revolution and opposing collaboration with the Indian bourgeoisie.

V. CPI’s Electoral Politics and Governance

Early electoral participation

• Performance in Lok Sabha elections (1951, 1957, 1962): The Communist Party of India (CPI) participated in the first general elections in 1951-52, securing 16 seats and establishing itself as the principal opposition party. In the 1957 elections, CPI improved its performance, winning 27 seats. By the 1962 elections, CPI had secured 29 seats, marking its electoral high point in the Lok Sabha.
• Role as principal opposition party: Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, CPI played a significant role as the principal opposition party in the Lok Sabha. The party consistently challenged the policies of the ruling Indian National Congress and advocated for socialist reforms.

Kerala government (1957)

• Formation of first non-Congress government: In 1957, CPI formed the first non-Congress government in independent India by winning the legislative assembly elections in Kerala. E.M.S. Namboodiripad became the Chief Minister, leading a government that introduced several progressive reforms.
• Reforms introduced: The CPI-led government in Kerala introduced significant reforms, including land distribution, educational reforms, and measures to improve the socio-economic conditions of the lower castes and marginalized communities.
• Dismissal by central authorities: The central government, led by the Indian National Congress, dismissed the CPI government in Kerala in 1959 following violent protests and political unrest. This dismissal was a significant setback for CPI and highlighted the challenges faced by non-Congress governments during that period.

Decline and alliances

• Electoral decline in the 1960s: The 1960s saw a decline in CPI’s electoral fortunes. The party’s performance in the 1967 general elections was particularly disappointing, as it secured only 23 seats in the Lok Sabha.
• Formation of Left Front coalition: In response to its declining influence, CPI began forming alliances with other leftist parties. The most notable of these alliances was the Left Front coalition, which included the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)) and other leftist parties.
• Participation in state governments in West Bengal, Tripura, Kerala: The Left Front coalition achieved significant electoral success in several states. In West Bengal, the coalition formed the government in 1977 and remained in power for over three decades. In Tripura, the Left Front won the legislative assembly elections in 1978 and governed the state for several terms. In Kerala, the Left Front formed the government intermittently, with CPI playing a crucial role in these administrations.

VI. CPI’s Social and Economic Policies

Land reforms

• Advocacy for land redistribution: The Communist Party of India (CPI) has consistently advocated for land redistribution to address agrarian inequality and uplift the rural poor. This advocacy has been a cornerstone of CPI’s social and economic policies since its inception.
• Implementation in Kerala: The most notable implementation of land reforms by CPI occurred in Kerala. The Kerala Land Reforms (Amendment) Act, 1969, introduced by the C. Achutha Menon government, aimed to abolish the feudal system and ensure tenants’ rights. The act came into force on January 1, 1970.
• Impact on rural economy: The land reforms in Kerala had a profound impact on the rural economy. They led to the redistribution of land to landless farmers, increased agricultural productivity, and improved socio-economic conditions for marginalized communities.

Industrial policies

• Nationalization of industries: CPI has historically supported the nationalization of key industries to promote economic self-reliance and reduce dependency on foreign capital. This policy aimed to place major industries under state control to ensure equitable distribution of resources.
• Support for workers’ rights: CPI has been a staunch advocate for workers’ rights, pushing for better wages, safer working conditions, and job security. The party has played a significant role in organizing labor movements and strikes to achieve these goals.
• Role in trade union movements: CPI has been actively involved in trade union movements through organizations like the All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC). The party has led numerous industrial actions to protect workers’ interests and fight against exploitation.

Social justice

• Campaigns for women’s rights: CPI has launched several campaigns to promote women’s rights, focusing on issues such as gender equality, reproductive rights, and protection against domestic violence. The party has worked to ensure women’s representation in political and social spheres.
• Advocacy for lower castes and marginalized communities: CPI has consistently advocated for the rights of lower castes and marginalized communities. The party has pushed for policies to eliminate caste discrimination and improve access to education, healthcare, and employment opportunities for these groups.
• Efforts to eliminate caste discrimination: CPI has been at the forefront of efforts to eliminate caste-based discrimination. The party has supported affirmative action policies, land reforms, and social welfare programs to uplift Dalits and other oppressed communities.

VII. CPI’s Internationalism and Global Influence

International solidarity

• Support for anti-colonial struggles worldwide: The Communist Party of India (CPI) has consistently supported anti-colonial movements across the globe. This solidarity aligns with CPI’s commitment to internationalism and the fight against imperialism.
• Alignment with global communist movements: CPI has aligned itself with various global communist movements, sharing strategies and ideologies to promote socialism and communism worldwide.
• Role in Comintern: CPI played an active role in the Communist International (Comintern), which was an international communist organization that advocated for world communism. CPI’s involvement in Comintern helped to strengthen its international ties and influence.

Influence of October Revolution

• Inspiration from Soviet Union: The October Revolution of 1917 in Russia had a profound impact on the CPI. The success of the Bolsheviks inspired Indian communists to adopt Marxism-Leninism and strive for a similar revolution in India.
• Impact on Indian communist ideology and strategies: The October Revolution influenced CPI’s ideological framework and strategies. The party adopted Marxist-Leninist principles and aimed to overthrow the capitalist system in India through revolutionary means.

Global alliances

• Relationships with other communist parties: CPI has established strong relationships with other communist parties around the world. These alliances have facilitated the exchange of ideas, strategies, and support for common causes.
• Participation in international conferences and movements: CPI has actively participated in various international conferences and movements. These platforms have allowed CPI to collaborate with other leftist organizations and contribute to global discussions on socialism and communism.

VIII. Criticism and Controversies

Opposition to Quit India Movement

• Reasons for CPI’s stance: The Communist Party of India (CPI) opposed the Quit India Movement launched by Mahatma Gandhi in August 1942. This decision was influenced by the Comintern’s directives following the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in 1941. The CPI viewed the struggle against fascism as paramount and believed that supporting the British war effort was necessary to defeat Nazi Germany.
• Impact on public perception: CPI’s opposition to the Quit India Movement led to widespread public criticism. Many viewed the party as betraying the national struggle for independence. The decision damaged CPI’s reputation and alienated it from mainstream nationalist movements.
• Internal and external criticism: Within the party, there were disagreements over the stance on Quit India. Externally, the party faced backlash from other nationalist leaders and the general public. The CPI’s alignment with British interests during the war was seen as a betrayal by many.

Allegations of Betrayal

• Accusations during World War II: During World War II, CPI faced allegations of betrayal for its cooperation with the British colonial government. The party’s support for the Allied forces, influenced by the Soviet Union’s stance, led to accusations of acting as British collaborators.
• Responses to criticism: CPI leaders defended their position by emphasizing the global fight against fascism. They argued that defeating Nazi Germany was crucial for the success of global communism and the eventual liberation of colonies.
• Efforts to rebuild trust: Post-World War II, CPI made efforts to rebuild trust with the Indian populace. The party participated in various nationalist movements and worked to re-establish its credentials as a genuine anti-colonial force.

Contemporary Criticisms

• Decline in political influence: In recent decades, CPI has faced a significant decline in political influence. The party’s electoral performance has weakened, and it has struggled to maintain a strong presence in Indian politics.
• Challenges in adapting to new political realities: CPI has faced challenges in adapting to the changing political landscape in India. The rise of regional parties and the dominance of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) have marginalized CPI’s influence.
• Critiques of economic and social policies: CPI’s economic and social policies have faced criticism for being outdated and ineffective. Critics argue that the party has failed to modernize its approach to address contemporary issues like globalization, economic liberalization, and social justice.

IX. Legacy and Continuing Influence

Contributions to Indian politics

• Role in shaping labor and peasant movements: The Communist Party of India (CPI) played a pivotal role in organizing and leading labor and peasant movements across India. The party’s efforts in mobilizing workers and peasants contributed significantly to the broader struggle for independence and social justice.
• Impact on social justice and equality: CPI’s advocacy for land reforms, workers’ rights, and social justice has left a lasting impact on Indian society. The party’s policies and movements have helped improve the socio-economic conditions of marginalized communities and promote equality.

Influence on contemporary left

• Legacy in modern leftist movements: CPI’s principles and policies continue to influence contemporary leftist movements in India. The party’s commitment to socialism, workers’ rights, and social justice remains relevant in the current political landscape.
• Continued relevance of CPI’s principles and policies: Despite facing challenges, CPI’s core principles of Marxism-Leninism, anti-imperialism, and social justice continue to resonate with many leftist activists and organizations in India.

Future prospects

• Challenges facing CPI: CPI faces several challenges, including declining political influence, internal divisions, and the rise of regional parties. The party must address these issues to remain relevant in Indian politics.
• Potential for revival and adaptation: CPI has the potential to revive and adapt to the changing political landscape. By modernizing its approach and addressing contemporary issues like globalization and economic liberalization, the party can regain its influence.
• Role in contemporary Indian politics: CPI continues to play a role in contemporary Indian politics, particularly through its participation in state governments and alliances with other leftist parties. The party’s efforts to address social and economic issues remain crucial for promoting social justice and equality.

1. Analyze the impact of the Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929) on the early development and activities of the Communist Party of India. (250 words)
2. Discuss the ideological differences that led to the split of the Communist Party of India in 1964 and the formation of CPI(M). (250 words)
3. Evaluate the role of the Communist Party of India in the peasant and labor movements in India, focusing on their strategies and outcomes. (250 words)