13.3 India and her neighbours (1947-1964)

I. India’s Geopolitical Landscape (1947-1964)

Geographical Context and Strategic Importance

• India’s Location:
  Positioned in South Asia, India is a peninsular nation bordered by Pakistan to the west, China to the north, and Myanmar to the east, with the Indian Ocean to the south. This strategic position gives India significant influence over key maritime routes and control of the Indian Ocean Region (IOR), which connects the Middle East, Southeast Asia, and East Asia.
• Himalayan Frontier:
  The Himalayas serve as a natural barrier between India and China, yet this geography has also been a source of conflict due to disputed borders, as seen with the Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh regions.
• Gateway to the Indian Ocean:
  India’s access to the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal is crucial for maintaining control over major sea lanes that are vital for global trade, especially the transport of oil from the Persian Gulf. This also positions India as a significant player in global maritime security.

Inherited Colonial Borders and Disputes

• Partition of British India (1947):
  The partition led to the creation of two sovereign states—India and Pakistan—based on religious demographics. This division not only triggered large-scale migration and violence but also laid the foundation for several territorial disputes, most notably over Jammu and Kashmir.
• Kashmir Conflict:
  The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir acceded to India in 1947 under contentious circumstances, leading to the first Indo-Pak War (1947-1948). The conflict ended with the Line of Control (LoC) dividing the region into Indian-administered and Pakistani-administered territories.
• Tibet and the Sino-Indian Border Dispute:
  Following China’s annexation of Tibet in 1950, tensions rose along the undefined Himalayan border. The McMahon Line, drawn by the British, was not recognized by China, leading to the Sino-Indian War of 1962, a major border conflict in the regions of Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.

Emergence of New Nation-States in the Region

• Post-Colonial Transformation:
  With the end of British rule, the Indian subcontinent witnessed the creation of new states, including Pakistan in 1947 and later Bangladesh in 1971 (which emerged from East Pakistan). Sri Lanka, Myanmar, and Nepal also navigated the complexities of post-colonial governance during this period.
• Afghanistan’s Transition:
  Although not directly a British colony, Afghanistan remained a key player in the geopolitics of the region. Its political and military positioning was influenced by its proximity to British India and later by Cold War dynamics.

Challenges of Nation-Building and Regional Stability

• India’s Internal Challenges:
  Post-independence, India faced significant challenges in integrating more than 500 princely states into the Union. The States Reorganisation Act of 1956 restructured Indian states along linguistic lines, creating a cohesive administrative framework but also stirring regional tensions.
• Ethnic and Religious Conflicts:
  The partition led to communal violence, particularly in the Punjab and Bengal regions, displacing millions of people. Additionally, India struggled to forge a unified national identity, balancing diverse ethnic, religious, and linguistic groups.
• Pakistan’s Political Instability:
  Pakistan experienced repeated military coups, starting with General Ayub Khan‘s takeover in 1958, which created instability in the region. This internal volatility spilled over into bilateral relations, particularly over Kashmir and water disputes like the Indus Water Treaty of 1960.

Impact of Cold War Dynamics on South Asia: Non-Alignment vs. Bloc Politics

• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM):
  India, under Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru, emerged as a founding member of the Non-Aligned Movement in 1961, advocating for a third way in global politics. The NAM aimed to avoid alignment with either the Western bloc (NATO) led by the US or the Eastern bloc (Warsaw Pact) led by the Soviet Union.
• Pakistan’s Alignment with the West:
  In contrast to India’s non-alignment, Pakistan leaned towards the Western bloc, joining the Central Treaty Organization (CENTO) in 1955 and the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO) in 1954. This deepened Cold War rivalries in South Asia, with the US providing military aid to Pakistan.
• India-USSR Relations:
  Although India officially remained non-aligned, it cultivated closer ties with the Soviet Union, especially after 1955 when Nikita Khrushchev and Nikolai Bulganin visited India. The USSR supported India on key issues such as Kashmir and provided assistance in industrial and military development.

India’s Aspirations for Regional Leadership: Opportunities and Constraints

• India’s Regional Influence:
  As the largest and most populous country in South Asia, India sought to establish itself as the dominant power in the region. Nehru’s government aimed to project India as a leader in anti-colonial and non-aligned movements, offering moral and political support to newly independent nations in Asia and Africa.
• Economic Constraints:
  India’s aspirations were often limited by its economic challenges, such as widespread poverty and the need for economic development. The Five-Year Plans (starting in 1951) were introduced to promote industrial growth, but progress was slow.
• China as a Rival:
  China’s rise as a regional power, particularly after the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949, posed a significant challenge to India’s leadership in Asia. The 1962 war further complicated relations, shifting the regional balance of power.

Evolving Security Paradigms: From Conventional Threats to Nuclear Deterrence

• Conventional Threats:
  India’s early post-independence years were marked by conventional security threats, particularly from Pakistan and China. The wars of 1947-48 and 1962 were fought using conventional military strategies, with India focusing on strengthening its army and air force.
• Nuclear Ambitions:
  India’s journey toward nuclear capability began with the establishment of the Atomic Energy Commission (AEC) in 1948 under the leadership of Dr. Homi J. Bhabha. Although India did not conduct its first nuclear test until 1974, the foundations for nuclear deterrence were laid during this period.
• Indo-US Relations and Nuclear Non-Proliferation:
  The US expressed concerns about nuclear proliferation, but India maintained its right to develop nuclear technology for peaceful purposes. The US Atoms for Peace Program in the 1950s facilitated India’s access to nuclear technology, further advancing its capabilities.

II. India-Pakistan Relations

Partition and its Aftermath: Refugee Crisis, Property Disputes, and Communal Violence

• Partition of 1947
  The partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947 led to massive upheaval. It resulted in the largest mass migration in history, with 10 to 15 million people displaced. This division was based on religious demographics, with Pakistan created as a separate homeland for Muslims, while India remained a secular state.
• Refugee Crisis
  The sudden division created a severe refugee crisis, with millions of Hindus and Sikhs migrating from Pakistan to India, and Muslims moving in the opposite direction.
  • The Punjab and Bengal regions saw the most intense migration and violence.
  • Refugees were often housed in overcrowded camps, leading to economic strain and social challenges in both countries.
  • Approximately 1 to 2 million people lost their lives in the communal violence that accompanied the migration.
• Property Disputes
  The partition led to disputes over property left behind by migrating communities.
  • In India, properties abandoned by Muslims were designated as ‘Evacuee Property’, while in Pakistan, the same happened with Hindu and Sikh properties.
  • The governments of both countries established legal frameworks to redistribute these properties, but the process was often marred by corruption and favoritism.
• Communal Violence
  Partition also triggered widespread communal violence, particularly in Punjab, Bengal, and Delhi.
  • Rioters targeted people of opposing religions, resulting in massacres, forced conversions, and abductions.
  • The violence deepened mistrust between Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs, making post-partition reconciliation difficult.

Kashmir Conflict: Origins, UN Involvement, and Militarization

• Origins of the Conflict
  The princely state of Jammu and Kashmir was at the heart of the India-Pakistan dispute.
  • The Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh, initially wanted to remain independent but eventually acceded to India in October 1947 after tribal militias from Pakistan invaded the region.
  • This led to the First Indo-Pak War in 1947-1948, which ended in a ceasefire brokered by the United Nations.
• UN Involvement
  In response to the conflict, India brought the issue to the UN Security Council in 1948.
  • The UN passed several resolutions, calling for a ceasefire, the withdrawal of Pakistani forces, and a plebiscite to determine the region’s future.
  • However, disagreements over the terms of demilitarization meant that the plebiscite never occurred.
  • The Line of Control (LoC) was established, dividing Kashmir between Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistani-administered Azad Kashmir.
• Militarization
  Both nations maintained heavy military presences in the region, making Kashmir one of the most militarized zones in the world.
  • The Indian Armed Forces were deployed to secure the region against further incursions, while Pakistan bolstered its forces along the LoC.
  • By the late 1950s, the conflict had become entrenched, with small-scale skirmishes continuing over the next few decades.

Water Disputes: Indus Waters Treaty Negotiations and Implementation

• The Indus River System
  The Indus River, along with its tributaries, flows through both India and Pakistan, making it a critical resource for agriculture and drinking water.
  • After partition, control over the waters became a contentious issue, as Pakistan feared that India could restrict the flow of water into its territory.
• Indus Waters Treaty (1960)
  Negotiated with the assistance of the World Bank, the Indus Waters Treaty was signed in 1960 by Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and Pakistani President Ayub Khan.
  • The treaty divided the rivers of the Indus system: India gained control over the eastern rivers (Ravi, Beas, Sutlej), while Pakistan retained control over the western rivers (Indus, Jhelum, Chenab).
  • Despite political tensions, the treaty is often cited as a successful example of cooperation and has survived through multiple wars and crises.
• Implementation and Challenges
  While the treaty has largely been implemented as agreed, occasional disputes have arisen over India’s construction of dams and hydroelectric projects on the rivers.
  • Pakistan has raised concerns over projects like the Baglihar Dam on the Chenab River, fearing that such projects could reduce water flow into its territory.

Economic Ties: Trade Restrictions, Smuggling, and Informal Exchanges

• Trade Restrictions
  Following partition, formal trade between India and Pakistan was restricted due to political and military tensions.
  • Both nations imposed high tariffs and maintained stringent regulations, making bilateral trade limited.
  • After the 1947 Indo-Pak War, trade was further restricted, with embargoes on certain goods.
• Smuggling and Informal Exchanges
  Despite formal restrictions, informal trade flourished across the border.
  • Smuggling of goods like textiles, spices, and electronics became common, especially across the Punjab and Rajasthan borders.
  • Informal exchanges between communities continued, highlighting the deep economic and cultural ties that existed before partition.
• Attempts at Formal Trade Relations
  There were periodic attempts to normalize trade relations, but political setbacks, including the 1965 war, made sustained progress difficult.
  • In the early 1950s, trade agreements were briefly negotiated but fell apart due to lack of trust and escalating tensions over Kashmir.

Cultural Connections: Shared Heritage, Language, and Popular Culture

• Shared Heritage
  Despite the political divide, India and Pakistan share a rich cultural heritage rooted in centuries of history.
  • Both nations celebrate the Mughal legacy, as seen in architecture, art, and cuisine.
  • The Punjabi and Bengali regions, divided by partition, continue to share linguistic and cultural traditions.
• Language
  Hindi and Urdu, while distinct languages, share many similarities, particularly in spoken form.
  • Urdu became the official language of Pakistan, while Hindi was promoted in India. However, their shared history as dialects of Hindustani continues to unite people on both sides of the border.
• Popular Culture
  Bollywood, the Indian film industry, has a wide audience in Pakistan, with Indian films being smuggled into the country even when official bans were in place.
  • Pakistani television dramas and music, particularly ghazals, have also enjoyed immense popularity in India.

Diplomatic Initiatives: Attempts at Normalization and Setbacks

• Early Diplomatic Engagement
  In the immediate post-partition years, both nations attempted to establish formal diplomatic relations, despite the underlying tensions.
  • In 1949, Prime Ministers Liaquat Ali Khan of Pakistan and Jawaharlal Nehru of India signed the Liaquat-Nehru Pact, addressing the protection of minority communities in both countries.
• Setbacks
  Despite occasional progress, most attempts at normalization faced significant setbacks due to the unresolved Kashmir conflict.
  • Operation Gibraltar (1965), launched by Pakistan to infiltrate Kashmir, led to another war, worsening relations further.
  • Diplomatic ties were severed multiple times due to escalating tensions, military confrontations, and mutual distrust.

Military Confrontations: 1947-48 War, Small-Scale Skirmishes, and Buildup to 1965 War

• 1947-48 War
  The first major military conflict between India and Pakistan occurred over Kashmir.
  • Pakistan sent tribal militias to invade Kashmir, leading to the Maharaja’s accession to India.
  • The war ended with a UN-mediated ceasefire in 1948, resulting in the establishment of the LoC.
• Small-Scale Skirmishes
  Throughout the 1950s and early 1960s, India and Pakistan engaged in small-scale skirmishes, particularly along the Kashmir border.
  • These skirmishes were typically over strategic posts or incursions into each other’s territories, further straining relations.
• Buildup to 1965 War
  Tensions between India and Pakistan escalated in the early 1960s, fueled by unresolved issues over Kashmir and territorial claims.
  • Pakistan’s military buildup, supported by US military aid, emboldened the country to test India’s resolve through proxy warfare.
  • The buildup culminated in the Second Indo-Pak War in 1965.

Role of External Powers: US-Pakistan Alliance and its Impact on India

• US-Pakistan Alliance
  During the Cold War, Pakistan aligned itself with the United States, becoming a key ally in the region.
  • In 1954, Pakistan signed a mutual defense agreement with the US and became a member of SEATO and CENTO.
  • This alliance led to significant military aid from the US to Pakistan, including weapons and training for Pakistani forces.
• Impact on India
  India viewed the US-Pakistan alliance with suspicion, fearing that US military aid could tilt the regional power balance in Pakistan’s favor.
  • This alliance also pushed India closer to the Soviet Union, as India sought to counter Pakistan’s growing military strength.

III. India-China Relations

Historical Context: Ancient Cultural Ties and Modern Rivalries

• Ancient Cultural Ties
  India and China share a long history of cultural exchanges dating back over 2,000 years.
  • Buddhism played a central role, with Indian monks like Xuanzang (7th century CE) traveling to China and spreading Buddhist philosophy.
  • Trade flourished along the Silk Route, facilitating exchanges in knowledge, religion, and art.
  • The influence of Indian astronomy, mathematics, and medical practices extended into China during these early interactions.
• Modern Rivalries
  In the modern era, particularly after the Chinese Communist Revolution in 1949, the relationship between the two nations became strained.
  • Geopolitical ambitions of both countries clashed, leading to disputes over borders and territorial claims.
  • China’s rise as a regional power and India’s aspirations for leadership in South Asia created a rivalry that has persisted into the contemporary era.

Border Disputes: McMahon Line Controversy and Aksai Chin

• McMahon Line Controversy
  The McMahon Line was drawn in 1914 during the Simla Convention, which was attended by British India, Tibet, and China.
  • The line demarcates the boundary between Arunachal Pradesh (then known as North-East Frontier Agency) and Tibet.
  • China refused to recognize the McMahon Line, claiming that Tibet had no right to sign the agreement as it was part of China.
  • India, however, considers the McMahon Line to be the legal boundary, a key source of tension between the two nations.
• Aksai Chin Dispute
  Aksai Chin, a high-altitude desert region, is located at the junction of Tibet and Ladakh.
  • China seized control of Aksai Chin during the 1950s, viewing it as strategically important for connecting Xinjiang and Tibet.
  • India claims Aksai Chin as part of Ladakh, based on historical ties and British maps, but China contests this.
  • This territorial dispute contributed significantly to the outbreak of the Sino-Indian War in 1962.

Tibet Issue: India’s Stance and Its Implications

• India’s Stance on Tibet
  India had historically recognized Tibet as an autonomous region under Chinese suzerainty.
  • However, when China annexed Tibet in 1950, India expressed concern, particularly due to the geopolitical proximity of Tibet to India’s northern borders.
  • The situation escalated in 1959, when the Dalai Lama fled to India following the Tibetan uprising against Chinese rule. India granted him asylum, further straining relations.
• Implications for India-China Relations
  China’s suspicion towards India increased after India’s decision to grant asylum to the Dalai Lama, viewing it as interference in China’s internal affairs.
  • India’s support for Tibetan refugees and the presence of the Tibetan Government-in-Exile in Dharamshala became a long-standing point of contention between the two countries.
  • This issue contributed to the increasing mistrust between India and China, ultimately playing a role in the buildup to the 1962 Sino-Indian War.

Panchsheel Agreement: Principles and Limitations

• Panchsheel Agreement (1954)
  India and China signed the Panchsheel Agreement in 1954, which outlined five principles for peaceful coexistence.
  • These principles included mutual respect for sovereignty, non-aggression, non-interference in internal affairs, equality and mutual benefit, and peaceful coexistence.
  • The agreement was initially seen as a breakthrough in fostering friendly ties between India and China.
• Limitations of Panchsheel
  Despite the Panchsheel principles, the agreement was unable to resolve fundamental issues like the border disputes and Tibet question.
  • China’s actions in Aksai Chin and its growing assertiveness in Tibet eroded trust between the two nations.
  • The limitations of Panchsheel were exposed during the events leading to the 1962 war, as China perceived India’s policies in the region as encroachments on Chinese sovereignty.

Economic Cooperation: Trade Agreements and Barriers

• Early Trade Relations
  In the 1950s, India and China established trade relations with agreements on border trade in the Himalayan regions.
  • Both nations sought to leverage their geographical proximity for economic exchange, focusing on goods like textiles, tea, and handicrafts.
• Barriers to Trade
  However, these early trade initiatives were limited by the broader political tensions between the two countries.
  • China’s control over Tibet disrupted traditional trade routes, while India’s concerns over Chinese intentions in Aksai Chin made trade agreements difficult to sustain.
  • The Sino-Indian War of 1962 effectively halted significant economic exchanges for many years.

Diplomatic Engagements: High-Level Visits and Negotiations

• Early Diplomatic Engagements
  Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru played a key role in fostering early diplomatic relations with China.
  • Nehru visited China in 1954, and Premier Zhou Enlai made a reciprocal visit to India in the same year, signaling mutual goodwill at the time.
  • These high-level exchanges aimed to solidify the Panchsheel principles and encourage cooperation between the two emerging nations.
• Breakdown of Negotiations
  Despite these early efforts, relations began to deteriorate by the late 1950s.
  • China’s actions in Aksai Chin and Tibet, along with India’s perceived ‘Forward Policy’ of asserting control over disputed territories, led to a breakdown in diplomatic efforts.
  • Zhou Enlai’s visit to India in 1960 failed to resolve the border disputes, and by 1962, tensions had escalated to the point of open conflict.

Buildup to 1962 War: Forward Policy, Chinese Perceptions, and Miscalculations

• India’s Forward Policy
  By the late 1950s, India adopted the Forward Policy, which aimed to establish military outposts along the disputed border areas, especially in Ladakh and Arunachal Pradesh.
  • The policy sought to counter Chinese advances in Aksai Chin and reaffirm India’s territorial claims.
  • However, the Forward Policy was viewed by China as an aggressive move, escalating tensions further.
• Chinese Perceptions
  From China’s perspective, India’s actions in Aksai Chin and its support for Tibetan refugees were seen as direct challenges to Chinese sovereignty.
  • Chinese leaders, including Mao Zedong, believed that India’s assertiveness needed to be countered militarily to safeguard China’s territorial interests.
  • This perception, combined with the lack of effective diplomatic resolution, pushed China towards a military solution.
• Miscalculations and Outbreak of War
  Both nations miscalculated each other’s intentions and capabilities.
  • India underestimated China’s resolve to defend its claims in Aksai Chin, while China did not anticipate the long-term geopolitical consequences of military action.
  • The Sino-Indian War broke out in October 1962, resulting in a decisive victory for China, which further entrenched Chinese control over Aksai Chin.

Impact on Regional Balance of Power and India’s Foreign Policy Orientation

• Regional Balance of Power
  The 1962 war significantly altered the balance of power in the region.
  • China’s victory demonstrated its military superiority in the Himalayas, shifting the regional dynamics and weakening India’s position in South Asia.
  • Neighboring countries, including Pakistan, took note of India’s defeat, leading to closer Pakistan-China ties, particularly in the context of their shared rivalry with India.
• Impact on India’s Foreign Policy
  The 1962 conflict forced India to rethink its foreign policy and security strategies.
  • India turned towards the United States and the Soviet Union for military and economic aid, marking a departure from its earlier policy of non-alignment.
  • India also began to invest heavily in modernizing its military, focusing on border defense and improving its capabilities to deter future Chinese aggression.
  • The war deeply impacted Indian public opinion, leading to a more cautious and assertive stance towards China in the following decades.

IV. India-Nepal Relations

Historical Background: Cultural and Religious Ties

• Ancient Cultural Connections
  India and Nepal share deep-rooted cultural and religious ties dating back thousands of years.
  • Hinduism and Buddhism are the major religious influences that connect the two nations.
  • Lumbini, the birthplace of Lord Buddha, is located in Nepal, making it a significant religious destination for both Indians and Nepalis.
  • The Pashupatinath Temple in Kathmandu is one of the holiest Hindu shrines, further strengthening religious bonds.
• Interpersonal Relations
  People from both countries have been engaging in marriages and social interactions for centuries, with families often spread across both nations.
  • The open border between India and Nepal allows for unrestricted movement of people, which fosters strong people-to-people ties.

1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship: Provisions and Controversies

• Treaty of Peace and Friendship
  Signed in 1950, the Indo-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship established close relations between the two countries.
  • It allowed for open borders, giving Indian and Nepali citizens the right to move freely, reside, and engage in business and work in each other’s territory.
  • It also provided for mutual defense, ensuring India’s assistance to Nepal in the event of external aggression.
• Controversies
  Over the years, the treaty has faced criticism in Nepal for being unequal.
  • Many Nepalis view the treaty as limiting Nepal’s sovereignty and argue that it places the country under India’s strategic umbrella.
  • Calls for its revision, especially regarding the defense clause, have been frequent in Nepalese political discourse.

Political Developments in Nepal: Monarchy, Democracy Movements, and India’s Role

• Monarchy in Nepal
  Nepal was an absolute monarchy until 1990, with the Shah dynasty ruling for over two centuries.
  • During this period, India maintained close ties with the monarchy, often playing a role in mediating between the king and other political forces.
• Democracy Movements
  In 1990, a pro-democracy movement led to the establishment of a constitutional monarchy in Nepal.
  • India played a supportive role in this transition, providing diplomatic backing to Nepali political parties advocating democracy.
  • The 2006 Nepalese revolution saw the abolition of the monarchy, and Nepal became a republic. India, while cautious, continued to support Nepal’s democratic transition.
• India’s Role
  India has often been seen as a key player in Nepal’s political evolution, but its involvement has sometimes been viewed as interference.
  • India’s support for democracy has been balanced with its strategic interests, often leading to tensions with different political factions within Nepal.

Economic Interdependence: Trade, Aid, and Labor Migration

• Trade Relations
  India is Nepal’s largest trading partner.
  • Nepal exports goods like textiles, carpets, and tea to India, while India provides essential commodities like petroleum, medicines, and machinery.
  • In 2018, trade between India and Nepal amounted to approximately $8.2 billion, with India having a significant trade surplus.
• Aid and Development
  India has been a major provider of development aid to Nepal.
  • Indian assistance has been directed towards infrastructure projects, including roads, schools, and hospitals.
  • In the aftermath of the 2015 Nepal earthquake, India pledged over $1 billion for reconstruction efforts.
• Labor Migration
  A large number of Nepalis migrate to India for employment, contributing to the remittance economy in Nepal.
  • Jobs range from manual labor to positions in the Indian Army under the Gorkha Brigade, which has a long history of recruiting Nepali citizens.

Strategic Importance: Buffer State Concept and China Factor

• Buffer State Concept
  Historically, Nepal has been viewed as a buffer state between India and China.
  • For India, Nepal serves as a strategic buffer against any Chinese influence in the Himalayan region.
• China Factor
  Over the years, China has increased its influence in Nepal through infrastructure projects, investment, and diplomacy.
  • India views China’s growing presence in Nepal with caution, particularly in the context of the larger India-China rivalry.
  • Nepal has often tried to balance its relations with India and China, sometimes playing one against the other to gain economic or political advantages.

Hydropower Cooperation and Disputes

• Hydropower Cooperation
  Nepal, with its vast river systems, has the potential to generate a significant amount of hydropower.
  • India has partnered with Nepal on several hydropower projects, including the Mahakali Treaty (1996) for the Pancheshwar Multipurpose Project, aimed at generating electricity and managing water resources.
• Disputes
  However, hydropower cooperation has not been without challenges.
  • Nepal has often expressed concerns that Indian projects disproportionately benefit India and fail to meet Nepal’s domestic needs.
  • Issues over water sharing and delays in project implementation have led to political tensions.

Cultural Exchanges and People-to-People Contacts

• Cultural Commonalities
  The cultural exchanges between India and Nepal are immense, with shared festivals, music, and art.
  • Festivals like Dashain, Tihar, and Holi are celebrated with equal fervor in both countries, strengthening their cultural ties.
• Education and Media
  Many Nepali students pursue higher education in Indian institutions.
  • Indian films and television shows are widely popular in Nepal, and the Hindi language serves as a major medium of communication for both countries.
• Religious Tourism
  The presence of important religious sites in both countries, such as Lumbini in Nepal and Varanasi in India, encourages religious tourism and enhances cross-border connections.

Challenges: Border Issues, Madhesi Concerns, and Balancing Act Between India and China

• Border Issues
  India and Nepal share a 1,758 km long border, which is largely open but not without disputes.
  • In recent years, the Kalapani-Lipulekh border dispute has led to diplomatic tensions, with both countries claiming the region.
• Madhesi Concerns
  The Madhesi people, who live in the Terai region of Nepal along the Indian border, have ethnic and cultural ties with India.
  • During the drafting of the Nepali Constitution in 2015, Madhesi groups protested against their political marginalization, and India was accused of supporting their demands, leading to a blockade of goods into Nepal.
  • The blockade resulted in severe shortages of essential supplies in Nepal and worsened bilateral relations for a period.
• Balancing Act Between India and China
  Nepal has traditionally maintained a delicate balance between its two large neighbors.
  • While India remains a cultural and economic partner, China’s increasing investments, particularly in infrastructure under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), have made Nepal more reliant on Beijing.
  • Nepal’s balancing act often leads to diplomatic friction with both India and China as it tries to maintain its sovereignty and independence in foreign policy.

V. India-Bhutan Relations

Protectorate Status: Transition from British to Indian Influence

• Historical Background
  Bhutan was under British protectorate status before India’s independence.
  • In 1910, the Treaty of Punakha granted Britain control over Bhutan’s foreign policy in exchange for non-interference in its internal affairs.
  • Following Indian independence in 1947, India inherited this role, continuing a special relationship with Bhutan.
  • Unlike Nepal, Bhutan maintained a monarchical structure with strong ties to India, gradually transitioning into a close partnership post-British withdrawal.
• India’s Role
  After independence, India aimed to build a strong, secure relationship with Bhutan, recognizing its strategic location in the Himalayan region.
  • Bhutan accepted India’s leadership in foreign affairs while maintaining internal autonomy, marking a smooth transition from British to Indian influence.

1949 Treaty of Friendship: Key Provisions and Implications

• Treaty of Friendship (1949)
  Signed on August 8, 1949, the treaty cemented India’s influence over Bhutan while offering support for its sovereignty.
  • Bhutan agreed to accept India’s guidance in its foreign relations and defense policies.
  • In return, India pledged non-interference in Bhutan’s internal governance, continuing the principle of internal autonomy.
• Mutual Benefits
  The treaty established permanent peace and free trade between the two nations, facilitating economic integration.
  • Bhutan retained its sovereignty while receiving Indian economic and defense support.
  • Over the years, the treaty’s foreign policy clause was seen as limiting, leading to discussions for revisions in later decades, especially regarding Bhutan’s desire for greater autonomy.

Economic Assistance: India’s Role in Bhutan’s Development

• Indian Development Aid
  India has been Bhutan’s largest development partner, playing a crucial role in its Five-Year Plans since their inception in 1961.
  • Indian aid has been directed towards building roads, telecommunications, education, health care, and hydropower infrastructure.
  • India’s support has contributed to Bhutan’s progress from an isolated kingdom to a nation focused on sustainable development, measured by Gross National Happiness (GNH) instead of GDP.
• Key Projects
  Indian-funded projects include the construction of the Thimphu-Phuentsholing highway, Paro airport, and education initiatives that support school and university development in Bhutan.
  • India’s commitment to Bhutan’s economic development has been instrumental in raising the standard of living and fostering regional integration.

Strategic Partnership: Defense Cooperation and China Factor

• Defense Cooperation
  India plays a key role in Bhutan’s defense, assisting with the training of Bhutanese military personnel and providing arms.
  • Indian troops are stationed at strategic locations in Bhutan under the auspices of the Indian Military Training Team (IMTRAT), established to secure the Himalayan borders and protect Bhutan from external threats.
• China Factor
  Bhutan’s strategic location between India and China has made it a crucial player in the India-China rivalry.
  • Bhutan has no formal diplomatic relations with China, and ongoing border disputes between Bhutan and China, especially in areas like Doklam, have led to tensions.
  • In 2017, India intervened in the Doklam standoff, reinforcing its role as Bhutan’s security guarantor while preventing Chinese encroachments near the India-Bhutan-Tibet tri-junction.

Cultural and Educational Exchanges

• Cultural Ties
  India and Bhutan share a rich cultural heritage, with deep connections rooted in Buddhism.
  • Bhutanese monastic traditions are closely linked to Indian spiritual practices, particularly through ties with Nalanda University and other ancient centers of learning in India.
  • Festivals, art forms, and Buddhist scholarship continue to form cultural bridges between the two nations.
• Educational Cooperation
  India has been a major destination for Bhutanese students pursuing higher education.
  • Indian scholarships and assistance programs have allowed Bhutanese students to attend Indian universities, strengthening ties between the younger generations of both nations.
  • Additionally, India has helped set up educational institutions within Bhutan, including schools and vocational training centers, which play a key role in enhancing Bhutan’s human capital.

Hydropower Projects: Cooperation and Benefit-Sharing

• Hydropower Cooperation
  Bhutan’s rivers hold enormous potential for hydropower generation, and India has been the primary partner in harnessing this resource.
  • Major hydropower projects like the Chukha (1986), Kurichu (2002), and Tala (2007) have been developed with Indian assistance.
  • Bhutan exports the majority of its generated electricity to India, making hydropower the biggest contributor to Bhutan’s economy and a major source of revenue.
• Benefit-Sharing
  India has financed and provided technical support for Bhutan’s hydropower projects, and both countries benefit from the electricity trade.
  • Bhutan earns substantial revenue by exporting electricity to India, while India gains access to clean, renewable energy.
  • The power purchase agreements ensure mutual benefit, but Bhutan has expressed concerns over being over-dependent on hydropower and the need to diversify its economic base.

Challenges: Bhutan’s Quest for Greater Autonomy and Diversification of Foreign Relations

• Bhutan’s Autonomy
  In recent decades, Bhutan has sought to gain more independent foreign relations, moving beyond its historical dependence on India.
  • The 2007 revision of the Indo-Bhutan Treaty allowed Bhutan greater freedom in conducting its foreign affairs, removing the clause requiring it to seek India’s approval for foreign policy decisions.
  • However, Bhutan continues to be cautious in balancing its relationship with India and its desire to expand diplomatic relations, especially in light of Chinese overtures.
• Diversification of Foreign Relations
  Bhutan has been working to diversify its foreign relations while maintaining its close ties with India.
  • Bhutan has cautiously engaged with China, particularly on border disputes, but remains wary of China’s intentions.
  • At the same time, Bhutan has strengthened its participation in regional organizations such as the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) and the BIMSTEC framework, which includes Bangladesh, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.
• Economic Diversification
  Bhutan’s over-reliance on hydropower exports to India has led to concerns over economic vulnerability.
  • Bhutan is exploring other sectors such as tourism, agriculture, and small-scale industries to reduce its dependency on a single economic sector and achieve more balanced development.

VI. India-Ceylon (Sri Lanka) Relations

Colonial Legacies: Shared History and Separate Trajectories

• British Colonial Rule
  Both India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka) were under British colonial rule, which shaped their economic, social, and political structures.
  • Ceylon was officially a British colony from 1815 until its independence in 1948.
  • The plantation economy, with tea, rubber, and coconut as major crops, mirrored the agricultural structures established in British India.
• Different Political Trajectories
  While India embarked on a nationalist movement that culminated in independence in 1947, Ceylon gained independence more peacefully in 1948 without a large-scale national liberation struggle.
  • India developed as a federal, democratic republic, while Sri Lanka began as a unitary state with a parliamentary system.
  • Despite shared colonial legacies, the two countries pursued distinct political paths in the post-colonial period.

Citizenship Issues: Status of Indian Tamils in Ceylon

• Indian Tamils in Ceylon
  During the 19th century, the British brought Indian Tamils to Ceylon to work on tea plantations.
  • By the time of independence, these Indian Tamils, numbering about 1 million, faced statelessness as they were not granted Ceylonese citizenship.
• 1954 Bandaranaike-Nehru Pact
  The Bandaranaike-Nehru Pact was signed to address the citizenship issues of Indian Tamils.
  • Under this pact, India agreed to repatriate a portion of the Indian Tamils, while Ceylon would grant citizenship to the remaining individuals.
  • This agreement aimed to reduce tensions, but implementation challenges and political disagreements continued to complicate the situation.
• Statelessness and Ethnic Tensions
  The statelessness of Indian Tamils contributed to ethnic tensions in Ceylon, exacerbating divisions between the Sinhalese majority and the Tamil minority.
  • These tensions would later become a major factor in Sri Lanka’s ethnic conflict.

Economic Ties: Trade Agreements and Labor Movement

• Trade Relations
  India and Ceylon have historically been close trading partners, with textiles, agricultural products, and spices forming the backbone of trade.
  • In 1956, both nations signed a trade agreement to promote economic exchange and cooperation.
• Labor Movement
  The movement of laborers between India and Ceylon, especially Indian Tamils, played a significant role in both countries’ economies.
  • Indian laborers were crucial to the development of Ceylon’s tea plantations, contributing significantly to its economy.
  • However, labor migration became a source of political contention due to issues of citizenship and integration.

Cultural Connections: Religious and Linguistic Links

• Religious Ties
  Both countries share strong Buddhist ties, as Theravada Buddhism is the major religion in Sri Lanka, while India is home to Buddhism’s origins.
  • Sri Lanka’s Buddhist monks often traveled to India, especially to sites like Bodh Gaya, further strengthening religious connections.
• Linguistic Connections
  The Tamil-speaking population of India’s Tamil Nadu and Sri Lanka maintains a significant cultural and linguistic bond.
  • Tamil is one of the official languages of Sri Lanka, spoken by the Sri Lankan Tamils and Indian Tamils.
• Cultural Exchange
  The cross-border cultural exchange between the two countries continues to thrive through shared religious festivals, literature, and artistic performances.

Strategic Considerations: Indian Ocean Security and Great Power Rivalry

• Strategic Importance of the Indian Ocean
  Sri Lanka’s position in the Indian Ocean makes it a crucial player in maritime security and regional stability.
  • India has a vested interest in maintaining strong ties with Sri Lanka to ensure the security of vital sea lanes through which global trade and oil shipments pass.
• Great Power Rivalry
  During the Cold War, Sri Lanka navigated the rivalry between India, the US, and the Soviet Union.
  • India viewed Sri Lanka as an important ally in South Asia, while external powers like the US and China sought to increase their influence in the region.
• India’s Security Concerns
  India has been concerned about foreign military bases or alliances that could pose a threat to Indian maritime interests.
  • India’s influence was particularly evident in 1987, when it intervened during Sri Lanka’s civil war by sending the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF).

Kachchativu Island Dispute

• Geographical Context
  Kachchativu, a small island in the Palk Strait, has been a point of contention between India and Sri Lanka.
  • Historically used by Indian fishermen, the island was ceded to Sri Lanka under the Indo-Ceylon Agreement of 1974.
• Fishing Rights Dispute
  After Kachchativu was ceded, disputes arose over fishing rights in the surrounding waters.
  • Indian fishermen continued to fish near the island, which led to arrests and tensions between Indian and Sri Lankan authorities.
  • The Kachchativu dispute remains unresolved, with calls from Indian political leaders for the restoration of traditional fishing rights.

Bandaranaike-Nehru Pact: Attempts at Resolving Contentious Issues

• 1954 Bandaranaike-Nehru Pact
  The Bandaranaike-Nehru Pact aimed to resolve contentious issues, particularly regarding the status of Indian Tamils.
  • The pact outlined that a portion of Indian Tamils would be repatriated to India, while the remainder would receive Sri Lankan citizenship.
• Challenges in Implementation
  Despite the agreement, political disagreements and bureaucratic hurdles slowed the process.
  • The pact did not fully resolve the tensions, as ethnic divisions between Sinhalese and Tamils persisted.

Evolving Domestic Politics in Ceylon and Its Impact on Bilateral Relations

• Rise of Sinhalese Nationalism
  In the 1950s, Sinhalese nationalism became a dominant force in Sri Lankan politics, leading to tensions with the Tamil minority and straining relations with India.
  • The adoption of Sinhala-only policies marginalized the Tamil population, contributing to ethnic unrest.
• Impact on Relations with India
  India’s concern over the treatment of the Tamil population in Sri Lanka led to diplomatic tensions.
  • India’s support for Tamil political rights was viewed with suspicion by Sri Lanka, particularly as it faced an escalating Tamil separatist movement.
• Civil War and Indian Involvement
  The Sri Lankan Civil War (1983-2009) had a profound impact on India-Ceylon relations.
  • India attempted to mediate between the Sri Lankan government and Tamil rebels but became directly involved by deploying the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in 1987 under the Indo-Sri Lankan Accord.
  • India’s involvement was controversial, and the IPKF was withdrawn in 1990 after facing resistance from both the Sri Lankan government and Tamil militant groups.

VII. India-Burma (Myanmar) Relations

Historical Context: Shared Colonial Experience and Cultural Ties

• Colonial Experience
  India and Burma (Myanmar) shared a significant portion of their colonial history under British rule.
  • Burma was administered as part of British India until 1937, when it was separated and made a distinct British colony.
  • Both nations experienced similar colonial administrative practices, economic exploitation, and resistance to British rule.
• Cultural and Religious Ties
  India and Burma are culturally connected through Buddhism, as Theravada Buddhism has deep roots in both countries.
  • Historical links, such as the spread of Buddhism from India to Burma, continue to influence cultural exchanges.
  • Shared festivals, traditions, and ancient Buddhist pilgrimage sites like Bodh Gaya in India remain integral to the cultural relationship.

Border Demarcation and Tribal Issues

• India-Myanmar Border
  India and Myanmar share a 1,643 km-long border, which passes through challenging terrains such as the Northeast region of India and Myanmar’s Chin State.
  • The border demarcation between the two countries has been a point of contention, especially given the presence of tribal communities that straddle the border.
• Tribal Communities and Insurgencies
  Tribal groups such as the Nagas, Kukis, and Mizos have traditionally lived on both sides of the border, leading to cross-border ethnic ties.
  • Issues of insurgency and separatist movements in India’s Northeast have had a cross-border dimension, with some insurgents using Myanmar as a base for their operations.
  • Both countries have cooperated on counter-insurgency operations to manage the challenges posed by these groups.

Economic Cooperation: Trade Agreements and Infrastructure Projects

• Bilateral Trade
  India and Myanmar share strong trade relations, with agricultural products, pulses, and textiles being key exports.
  • In 1994, India and Myanmar signed a trade agreement aimed at boosting cross-border trade and reducing tariffs on select goods.
  • As of 2020, bilateral trade between the two nations reached approximately $2 billion.
• Infrastructure Projects
  India has taken a lead role in infrastructure development within Myanmar to improve connectivity and regional trade.
  • The Kaladan Multi-Modal Transit Transport Project, initiated in 2008, aims to link Kolkata to Sittwe Port in Myanmar via the Kaladan River and further inland roads to India’s northeastern states.
  • India is also involved in building the India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway, designed to improve land-based connectivity between South and Southeast Asia.

Strategic Importance: Northeast India Security and China Factor

• Security in Northeast India
  Myanmar plays a crucial role in India’s security strategy concerning its Northeast region.
  • Insurgent groups from Nagaland, Manipur, and Assam have historically used Myanmar’s territory as a base for their operations.
  • India has coordinated with Myanmar on security operations aimed at neutralizing insurgent threats, with Myanmar providing assurances on not allowing its territory to be used against India.
• China Factor
  Myanmar’s location between India and China makes it strategically significant for both countries.
  • China’s influence in Myanmar has grown, particularly through its investments in infrastructure under the Belt and Road Initiative (BRI).
  • India views Chinese investments in Myanmar, especially in projects like the Kyaukphyu Port and the China-Myanmar Economic Corridor, with concern, as these could potentially increase Chinese influence in Myanmar’s economy and politics.

Indian Diaspora in Burma: Challenges and Repatriation

• Indian Migration to Burma
  During British rule, a large number of Indians migrated to Burma as laborers, traders, and civil servants. By the early 20th century, they constituted a significant portion of the Burmese economy.
  • Indians were particularly prominent in urban areas like Yangon (Rangoon), where they played key roles in commerce and administration.
• Post-Independence Challenges
  After Myanmar gained independence in 1948, the Indian diaspora faced several challenges, including nationalization policies that targeted foreign-owned businesses.
  • Anti-Indian sentiment grew, leading to discrimination and the confiscation of property, particularly under the military regime that came to power in 1962.
• Repatriation
  Many Indians were repatriated to India during the 1960s and 1970s, with some choosing to stay in Myanmar despite the challenges.
  • India has periodically worked on ensuring the rights of the remaining Indian diaspora in Myanmar, though their numbers have declined significantly.

Political Developments in Burma: India’s Stance on Military Rule

• Military Rule in Myanmar
  Myanmar has experienced decades of military rule since the coup of 1962, which established a military junta.
  • India initially distanced itself from the military regime, especially in light of its own democratic values. However, geopolitical concerns over China’s growing influence in Myanmar led India to engage pragmatically with the military regime.
• Pro-Democracy Movements
  India expressed support for pro-democracy movements, particularly the efforts of Aung San Suu Kyi and her party, the National League for Democracy (NLD).
  • Despite India’s historical support for democratic governance, it maintained relations with the military regime to safeguard strategic and security interests in the region.
• Balancing Relations
  India has attempted to balance its relations with the military regime and pro-democracy forces in Myanmar, ensuring it remains a key partner in the region while also advocating for political reforms.

Diplomatic Initiatives: Joint Efforts in Regional Forums

• Bay of Bengal Initiative for Multi-Sectoral Technical and Economic Cooperation (BIMSTEC)
  Both India and Myanmar are founding members of BIMSTEC (established in 1997), which promotes regional cooperation among countries in the Bay of Bengal region.
  • This forum facilitates economic cooperation, counter-terrorism collaboration, and joint efforts on disaster management.
• Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
  Myanmar’s membership in ASEAN has further deepened its regional ties, and India has worked closely with Myanmar within the ASEAN framework.
  • India’s Act East Policy emphasizes strengthening ties with ASEAN members, with Myanmar serving as a critical link between South and Southeast Asia.
• Security and Border Cooperation
  India and Myanmar have strengthened border management through various bilateral agreements, focusing on counter-insurgency operations, illegal migration, and drug trafficking.
  • Joint border patrols and intelligence-sharing mechanisms have been put in place to secure the porous borders.

VIII. India-Afghanistan Relations

Historical Background: Cultural and Trade Links

• Ancient Cultural Ties
  India and Afghanistan have shared cultural ties dating back thousands of years.
  • The region was a critical part of the Silk Route, facilitating cultural and trade exchanges between India, Central Asia, and Persia.
  • Buddhism spread from India to Afghanistan during the Mauryan Empire, with notable Buddhist sites like Bamiyan in Afghanistan.
  • The Kushana Empire and Gandhara art linked the two regions culturally, influencing art, architecture, and philosophy.
• Medieval and Mughal Links
  The Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire strengthened ties between India and Afghanistan.
  • Afghan rulers like Sher Shah Suri and the Lodhi Dynasty ruled parts of India, cementing political and cultural connections.
  • Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, originated from Fergana Valley, present-day Uzbekistan, but he entered India via Afghanistan, making the region a key gateway to the Indian subcontinent.
• Modern Economic Exchange
  During the colonial period and post-independence era, India and Afghanistan maintained strong trade relations, especially in spices, dry fruits, and textiles.
  • Afghanistan’s Pomegranate, saffron, and carpets remain popular in Indian markets.

Strategic Importance: Buffer State Concept and Pakistan Factor

• Buffer State Concept
  Afghanistan has historically been seen as a buffer state, especially during the Great Game of the 19th century between British India and Tsarist Russia.
  • India views Afghanistan as a strategic buffer against potential adversaries, particularly Pakistan.
• Pakistan Factor
  Afghanistan’s strategic location is crucial in the context of India-Pakistan relations.
  • India sees a stable Afghanistan as critical to countering Pakistan’s influence in the region.
  • Pakistan has historically sought a friendly Afghan government to secure its western flank, leading to a complex triangular relationship between India, Afghanistan, and Pakistan.
• Cross-Border Security
  India views its involvement in Afghanistan as vital for ensuring regional security, especially in countering terrorism and limiting Pakistan’s influence through groups like the Taliban.

Economic Cooperation: Aid, Trade, and Infrastructure Projects

• Indian Development Aid
  India is one of the largest regional contributors to Afghan reconstruction, providing over $3 billion in aid since 2001.
  • India has been instrumental in building infrastructure, including the Afghan Parliament, the Salma Dam (Herat), and the Zaranj-Delaram Highway.
• Key Infrastructure Projects
  • Salma Dam (2016): A major hydropower project in Herat province, providing irrigation and power generation.
  • Zaranj-Delaram Highway (2009): A 218-km highway that connects Afghanistan’s Zaranj to the Delaram district, improving access to the Chabahar Port in Iran.
  • Afghan Parliament Building (2015): India built the new Parliament, symbolizing its support for Afghanistan’s democracy.
• Trade Agreements
  India and Afghanistan have signed several trade agreements, enhancing cooperation in agriculture, minerals, and infrastructure.
  • Afghanistan exports products like saffron, dry fruits, and carpets, while India exports medicines, textiles, and IT services.
  • The India-Afghanistan Trade and Investment Show, organized annually, further boosts economic ties.

Political Support: India’s Role in Afghanistan’s Nation-Building Efforts

• Post-2001 Engagement
  Following the US-led invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, India became a major supporter of nation-building efforts.
  • India has provided technical assistance for Afghanistan’s democratic processes, including support for elections, governance reforms, and rule of law.
• Support for Democratic Institutions
  India helped establish key government institutions in Afghanistan and offered training programs for Afghan civil servants, diplomats, and police forces.
• Non-Interference Policy
  India adheres to a non-interference policy in Afghanistan’s internal affairs but maintains a strong diplomatic presence, emphasizing Afghan-led, Afghan-owned peace processes.

Security Concerns: Terrorism and Regional Stability

• Counterterrorism Cooperation
  India has consistently worked with Afghanistan to address terrorism threats, particularly emanating from groups like the Haqqani Network, Lashkar-e-Taiba, and the Taliban.
  • Indian security agencies collaborate with Afghan counterparts on intelligence sharing and capacity building.
• Terrorist Attacks on Indian Interests
  Indian investments in Afghanistan have been targeted by militant groups, including attacks on the Indian Embassy in Kabul (2008, 2009) and on Indian consulates.
  • India remains committed to supporting Afghanistan’s stability despite these challenges.
• Regional Stability
  India’s active role in Afghanistan is driven by concerns over regional stability, particularly in the context of Pakistan-backed insurgencies.
  • India’s strategic investments in infrastructure and diplomatic engagement are seen as a means to secure peace in South Asia.

Cultural Diplomacy: Educational Exchanges and Soft Power Initiatives

• Educational Exchanges
  India has extended educational scholarships to thousands of Afghan students through the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR).
  • Many Afghan students pursue higher education in Indian universities, particularly in fields like medicine, engineering, and IT.
• Soft Power Initiatives
  India engages in cultural diplomacy through initiatives like cricket diplomacy, promoting Bollywood films, and organizing cultural festivals that showcase India’s heritage.
  • The Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program provides Afghan professionals with training in various fields.
• Health Diplomacy
  India has supported Afghanistan’s healthcare sector by sending medical teams, donating vaccines, and building hospitals.
  • India’s Indira Gandhi Institute of Child Health in Kabul is a key symbol of this health collaboration.

Challenges: Balancing Act Between Afghanistan, Pakistan, and the West

• Afghanistan-Pakistan Tensions
  India faces the challenge of balancing its relations with Afghanistan and managing Pakistan’s opposition to its involvement.
  • Pakistan views India’s presence in Afghanistan with suspicion, especially in light of its own security concerns related to Kashmir and cross-border insurgencies.
• US Withdrawal and Uncertainty
  The US withdrawal from Afghanistan has created uncertainty in the region, raising concerns about the Taliban’s resurgence and the stability of the Afghan government.
  • India remains committed to maintaining a diplomatic presence and supporting peace-building efforts, even in the face of rising instability.
• Navigating Relations with the West
  India’s involvement in Afghanistan also necessitates a careful balancing act with Western powers, particularly the United States and NATO allies.
  • While India emphasizes an Afghan-led peace process, it also engages in dialogue with the West on issues related to counterterrorism and regional security.

IX. India and Smaller Neighbors

India-Maldives Relations: Strategic Importance and Economic Assistance

• Geographical and Strategic Importance
  The Maldives is strategically located in the Indian Ocean, making it crucial for India’s maritime security.
  • It lies near vital sea lanes through which a large portion of the world’s oil trade passes, making control and influence over these waters essential for India.
  • India views the Maldives as key to maintaining Indian Ocean security and limiting China’s growing influence in the region.
• Operation Cactus (1988)
  India demonstrated its military support for the Maldives during the 1988 coup attempt.
  • The Indian Armed Forces, under Operation Cactus, successfully intervened to restore order, showcasing India’s commitment to the stability and sovereignty of the Maldives.
• Economic Assistance and Development
  India has provided significant economic aid to the Maldives, focusing on infrastructure, healthcare, and education.
  • India has funded several projects, including the Greater Male Connectivity Project and built hospitals to improve healthcare infrastructure.
  • During the COVID-19 pandemic, India provided medical assistance, including vaccines, under its “Vaccine Maitri” initiative.
• Environmental Concerns
  The Maldives, being one of the world’s most vulnerable nations to climate change, has partnered with India on sustainability projects.
  • India has committed to renewable energy projects in the Maldives, focusing on clean energy generation and solar power initiatives.

India-Sikkim Relations: Protectorate Status and Eventual Integration

• Protectorate Status
  Sikkim became a protectorate of India following the India-Sikkim Treaty of 1950.
  • India assumed control over Sikkim’s defense, foreign relations, and communications, while allowing it internal autonomy under the Chogyal (monarchy).
• Political Changes and Integration
  Political unrest and demands for democratic reform led to the Sikkimese people calling for greater integration with India.
  • In 1975, after a referendum, Sikkim was officially integrated into India as its 22nd state.
  • This move ended the monarchy and made Sikkim a full-fledged Indian state, highlighting India’s peaceful and diplomatic approach to regional integration.
• Current Relations
  Sikkim enjoys special status within India, with significant development in infrastructure, tourism, and agriculture.
  • The region has become a major hub for organic farming and is a critical part of India’s Northeast strategy, strengthening the regional economy.

[Comparative Analysis of India’s Approach to Smaller Neighbors: Similarities and Differences in Diplomatic, Economic, and Security Engagements]

Aspect	India-Maldives Relations	India-Sikkim Relations	India’s Broader Approach to Smaller Neighbors
Strategic Importance	Located in the Indian Ocean, key to maritime security; Close to vital sea lanes; Countering China’s influence.	Buffer state for Northeast India; Critical for security in the Himalayan region.	Emphasizes security, preventing Chinese influence, and ensuring regional stability.
Historical Ties	Historical ties through trade and culture; Support during Operation Cactus (1988).	Historical protectorate status; Peaceful integration in 1975.	Historically friendly relations with smaller states; Emphasis on mutual respect.
Economic Assistance	Focus on infrastructure, healthcare, and climate change initiatives; Greater Male Connectivity Project.	Infrastructure development post-integration; Focus on tourism and agriculture.	Major economic partner to smaller neighbors, providing development aid and investments in infrastructure.
Security Cooperation	India’s role in protecting Maldives’ sovereignty; Regular military assistance and training programs.	Military protection as part of India until integration; Indian defense presence for border security.	Security agreements with smaller neighbors ensure regional peace, prevent external threats.
Diplomatic Relations	Stable relations, regular high-level exchanges; Environmental cooperation due to climate vulnerability.	Integration based on referendum and democratic aspirations of the people.	Strong diplomatic engagements based on shared cultural and historical ties; Non-interference but readiness to assist in crisis situations.
Environmental Focus	Strong cooperation on climate change and renewable energy projects.	Focus on sustainable agriculture and organic farming; Support for Himalayan ecology.	India assists with sustainable development and climate adaptation projects across smaller states.

X. Regional Organizations and Initiatives

South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC): Conception and Early Challenges

• Conception of SAARC
  SAARC was established in 1985 with the goal of promoting regional cooperation and improving economic and political ties between South Asian nations.
  • The founding members included India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Bhutan, and Maldives.
  • The main objectives were to improve economic integration, poverty alleviation, and foster diplomatic cooperation.
• Early Challenges
  The rivalry between India and Pakistan has been the biggest challenge in SAARC’s effectiveness.
  • Political tensions, especially related to Kashmir, have often stalled progress.
  • India’s large size and influence in the region also raised concerns among smaller nations about domination, leading to cautious diplomatic engagement.
  • Intra-regional trade within SAARC remains low compared to other regions, representing only 5% of total trade.
• India’s Role in SAARC
  India has aspired to be a leader in the region, advocating for greater economic cooperation and integration.
  • India spearheaded initiatives like the South Asian Free Trade Area (SAFTA) agreement in 2006 to promote regional trade.
  • However, India’s strategic interests have often been hindered by Pakistan’s reluctance to fully engage, particularly on security matters.

Colombo Plan: Economic Cooperation in South and Southeast Asia

• Formation of the Colombo Plan
  The Colombo Plan was established in 1950 with India as a founding member, aiming to boost economic development in South and Southeast Asia.
  • It was conceived as a post-war reconstruction effort to enhance economic cooperation in Asia and provide technical and financial support to developing countries.
• Objectives and Focus Areas
  The main focus areas included infrastructure development, technical assistance, and capacity building.
  • India played a key role in providing technical expertise, training programs, and scholarships to other member countries.
  • India contributed to projects in fields like irrigation, agriculture, and education, strengthening its diplomatic ties with countries in Asia-Pacific.
• India’s Contribution
  As a significant player in the Colombo Plan, India has provided training programs for thousands of professionals from member countries, contributing to skill development across the region.
  • India’s technical assistance programs under the plan have helped smaller countries to enhance their infrastructure, especially in education and health.

Asian Relations Conference: Nehru’s Vision of Asian Solidarity

• The First Asian Relations Conference
  Organized in New Delhi in 1947, the Asian Relations Conference was a reflection of Jawaharlal Nehru’s vision for a united and cooperative Asia.
  • It sought to promote solidarity among Asian nations as they emerged from colonialism and to strengthen ties between them on issues of freedom, peace, and economic development.
• Key Themes
  The conference emphasized anti-colonialism, self-determination, and mutual cooperation among Asian countries.
  • Nehru hoped the gathering would be the start of an Asian renaissance, fostering solidarity and cultural exchange between newly independent nations in the continent.
  • It was also seen as a precursor to future Asian-led initiatives like the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
• India’s Role
  India, under Nehru’s leadership, positioned itself as a central player in fostering Asian unity and peaceful coexistence.
  • This initiative also helped to elevate India’s status as a key diplomatic leader in post-colonial Asia, aiming to bring together diverse Asian powers.

Bandung Conference: Non-Aligned Movement and Its Impact on Regional Dynamics

• Bandung Conference of 1955
  The Bandung Conference held in Indonesia was a landmark event in the formation of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM).
  • India, along with other key leaders such as Indonesia’s Sukarno, Egypt’s Nasser, and Yugoslavia’s Tito, played a prominent role in advocating for the non-aligned policy, which aimed to keep newly independent nations out of Cold War alliances.
• Core Principles
  The conference laid the foundation for peaceful coexistence, respect for sovereignty, non-interference, and mutual cooperation among nations.
  • India’s role was pivotal, with Nehru advocating for a third way between the two global superpowers (US and Soviet Union) during the Cold War, promoting the policy of non-alignment.
• Impact on Regional Dynamics
  The Bandung Conference helped establish India’s leadership in the non-aligned world and cemented its position as a champion of Third World solidarity.
  • India’s commitment to regional peace, along with its diplomatic engagement with countries in Asia and Africa, reinforced its status as a key player in regional politics.
  • India used NAM as a platform to address issues of decolonization, economic cooperation, and anti-imperialism.

[Comparative Analysis of India’s Role in Different Regional Forums: Leadership Aspirations vs. Practical Constraints]

Aspect	SAARC	Colombo Plan	Asian Relations Conference	Bandung Conference
Leadership Role	India aspired to lead but faced challenges with Pakistan	Played significant role in providing technical assistance	Nehru’s vision for Asian unity	India pivotal in forming NAM
Core Focus	Regional cooperation, economic integration	Economic development, post-war reconstruction	Solidarity among newly independent Asian nations	Non-alignment, anti-imperialism
Challenges Faced	Pakistan’s opposition limited SAARC’s effectiveness	Limited financial contributions from Western countries	Asian nations divided over Cold War alignments	Cold War pressures and maintaining neutrality
Economic Cooperation	SAFTA agreement to promote intra-regional trade	India provided technical expertise and training	Encouraged economic solidarity in Asia	Promoted cooperation among non-aligned nations
Security Cooperation	Limited due to political tensions	Focused on development, not security	Focused on peaceful coexistence and sovereignty	Advocated non-interference in national sovereignty
India’s Position	India is the largest economy and key player	India’s technical support helped smaller nations	Positioned India as a key diplomatic leader	Reinforced India’s leadership in the non-aligned world

XI. Economic Dimensions of India’s Neighborhood Policy

Trade Patterns and Agreements with Neighboring Countries

• India’s Trade Relations
  India has established strong bilateral trade agreements with several neighboring countries, aiming to enhance regional integration and boost economic ties.
  • SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) was launched in 2006 to reduce tariffs and promote trade among South Asian nations.
  • India-Bangladesh trade has grown significantly, with Bangladesh emerging as India’s largest trade partner in South Asia, with a trade volume of over $10 billion in recent years.
  • India-Nepal Trade Treaty (1996) allows for tariff-free access for most goods, emphasizing the close economic relationship between the two nations.
• Emerging Trade Patterns
  The growth of cross-border trade has been facilitated by agreements that focus on export diversification, including products like textiles, agricultural goods, and industrial machinery.
  • India has been working on diversifying its trade relations with countries like Sri Lanka, focusing on tea, textiles, and rubber.
  • Despite political tensions, India-Pakistan trade has experienced sporadic periods of cooperation, particularly in the agricultural and textile sectors.

Cross-Border Infrastructure Projects: Roads, Railways, and Energy Pipelines

• Connectivity Projects
  India has been actively investing in cross-border infrastructure to enhance regional connectivity, making transportation and trade easier.
  • The India-Nepal Terai Roads Project is improving cross-border connectivity by upgrading over 1,200 km of roads along the Indo-Nepal border.
  • The India-Bangladesh Akhaura-Agartala Rail Link is expected to boost trade and people-to-people contact by linking India’s Northeast with Bangladesh.
  • India-Myanmar-Thailand Trilateral Highway is an ambitious project aimed at connecting Northeast India with Southeast Asia.
• Energy Pipelines
  India has also worked on energy infrastructure, creating gas and oil pipelines to enhance energy security.
  • The India-Nepal Petroleum Pipeline (2019) is a 69-km pipeline connecting Motihari in India to Amlekhgunj in Nepal, the first of its kind in the region.
  • There have also been discussions on the TAPI (Turkmenistan-Afghanistan-Pakistan-India) Pipeline, aimed at providing natural gas to South Asia.

Aid and Development Assistance Programs

• India’s Development Assistance
  India has been a significant provider of development assistance to its neighbors, focusing on projects in infrastructure, health, and education.
  • India-Bhutan relations have focused on the hydropower sector, with India funding major dams and projects like the Tala Hydroelectric Project.
  • India’s aid to Afghanistan has surpassed $3 billion, with key investments in infrastructure like the Salma Dam and the Afghan Parliament Building.
• Education and Healthcare Aid
  India has supported educational scholarships for students from neighboring countries, particularly in medicine, engineering, and management.
  • India has been involved in healthcare infrastructure by building hospitals, such as the Indira Gandhi Institute of Child Health in Kabul, Afghanistan.

Challenges of Economic Integration: Tariff and Non-Tariff Barriers

• Tariff Barriers
  While India has worked to reduce tariff barriers through agreements like SAFTA, several challenges persist.
  • High tariffs on specific goods like agricultural products have created tensions between India and other South Asian countries, particularly with Sri Lanka.
• Non-Tariff Barriers
  Non-tariff barriers, including customs procedures, trade logistics, and standards compliance, have also been a challenge.
  • Indian exports to countries like Bangladesh and Nepal often face bureaucratic delays, making cross-border trade less efficient.
  • Political tensions between India and Pakistan have led to intermittent restrictions on goods, impacting the overall trade volume.

Informal Economy and Border Trade

• Border Trade Practices
  Informal trade plays a significant role in the economies of India’s border regions, with cross-border smuggling of goods like textiles, food products, and electronics.
  • On the India-Bangladesh border, informal trade is a major contributor to the local economy, despite efforts to formalize cross-border exchanges.
• Challenges of Informal Economy
  The informal economy creates issues for tax collection and regulation, making it harder to monitor the quality and safety of traded goods.
  • Border trade also leads to security concerns, with regions like India’s Northeast being vulnerable to insurgent activities and drug trafficking.

[Comparative Analysis of India’s Economic Engagement with Different Neighbors: Successes, Failures, and Missed Opportunities]

Neighboring Country	Successes	Failures	Missed Opportunities
Bangladesh	Rapid growth in bilateral trade; Economic corridor projects	Persistent non-tariff barriers, customs delays	Enhancing water resource sharing agreements
Nepal	Strong trade ties with tariff-free access; Road and energy projects	Dependence on India; Political disputes	Expanding hydropower collaboration beyond current projects
Sri Lanka	SAFTA increased trade; FTA discussions for enhanced relations	High tariffs on agricultural goods; Political distrust	Tourism and education sector collaboration could be enhanced
Bhutan	Successful hydropower projects; Development aid through infrastructure	Over-reliance on hydropower sector; Limited diversification	Expanding manufacturing and industrial cooperation
Pakistan	Sporadic cooperation in trade sectors like textiles and agriculture	Persistent political and security tensions; Trade restrictions	Tapping into potential for regional energy cooperation
Afghanistan	Extensive aid in infrastructure; Key role in nation-building	Security concerns and instability; Limited trade engagement	Expanding trade ties through Central Asia connectivity

XII. Cultural and Soft Power Diplomacy

Educational Exchanges and Scholarship Programs

• India’s Educational Outreach
  India has long used educational exchanges as a key element of its soft power diplomacy, particularly with neighboring countries.
  • Through programs like the Indian Council for Cultural Relations (ICCR), India offers scholarships to students from neighboring nations such as Nepal, Bangladesh, Afghanistan, and Sri Lanka.
  • Courses range from medicine, engineering, management, to arts. Over 10,000 foreign students are currently enrolled in Indian institutions.
• Technical and Vocational Training
  Under the Indian Technical and Economic Cooperation (ITEC) program, professionals from developing countries, particularly in South Asia, receive training in various fields like information technology, rural development, and agriculture.
  • India has trained thousands of officials and technicians from countries like Myanmar, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka.
• Higher Education Cooperation
  India has signed several memorandums of understanding (MOUs) with neighboring nations to enhance higher education cooperation.
  • Initiatives like the India-Nepal Education Cooperation Agreement focus on providing educational infrastructure and enhancing bilateral ties through faculty exchanges.

Cultural Centers and Language Promotion

• Indian Cultural Centers
  India has established Indian Cultural Centers in many neighboring countries to promote its cultural heritage, arts, and literature.
  • Centers in Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka serve as hubs for cultural activities and language programs.
  • These centers conduct yoga workshops, Indian classical dance classes, and Hindi language courses to foster cultural exchange.
• Hindi and Sanskrit Language Promotion
  India promotes the Hindi language through the Hindi Seva Mandal, which runs language courses and competitions in several neighboring countries.
  • In Nepal, Sanskrit has strong cultural roots, and India supports initiatives that foster Sanskrit education through programs in local schools and institutions.
• Cross-border Festivals
  India and its neighbors celebrate common cultural festivals like Durga Puja, Diwali, and Holi, enhancing people-to-people ties across borders.
  • Indian cultural centers often host events that showcase Indian cinema, traditional crafts, and culinary arts.

Religious and Pilgrimage Tourism

• Buddhist Circuit
  India plays a crucial role in promoting religious tourism through the Buddhist Circuit, which connects important Buddhist pilgrimage sites in India with neighboring countries like Nepal, the birthplace of Lord Buddha.
  • Sites like Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, and Kushinagar attract pilgrims from Sri Lanka, Thailand, Myanmar, and Bhutan.
  • India has collaborated with Nepal on cross-border tourism projects such as the Lumbini-Kushinagar Buddhist pilgrimage corridor.
• Hindu Pilgrimages
  Hindu pilgrimage tourism is another aspect of India’s cultural diplomacy. Sites like Varanasi, Puri, and Rameswaram attract pilgrims from Nepal, Sri Lanka, and Bangladesh.
  • The Pashupatinath Temple in Nepal and Ramayana Circuit (connecting Ramayana-related sites across India and Sri Lanka) have become symbols of shared religious heritage.
• Sufi Shrines and Islamic Ties
  India’s Sufi shrines, like those in Ajmer and Nizamuddin, are major attractions for Muslim pilgrims from neighboring countries like Pakistan and Bangladesh, fostering religious solidarity.

Media and Entertainment Industry Influence

• Bollywood’s Influence
  Bollywood, India’s film industry, plays a significant role in promoting India’s cultural influence in the region.
  • Indian films are highly popular in Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Nepal, and Afghanistan, making them a key element of cultural diplomacy.
  • Indian TV serials, songs, and actors have achieved celebrity status across South Asia, creating a shared cultural connection.
• Joint Film Productions
  India has partnered with its neighbors for joint film productions and cultural exchanges.
  • The India-Sri Lanka Film Festival and Nepal-India Film Cooperation initiatives have increased collaboration between filmmakers and promoted a shared cinematic culture.
• Television and Digital Media
  Indian television channels and streaming platforms like Zee TV, Star Plus, and Netflix India have wide viewership in countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan.
  • Programs like Kaun Banega Crorepati, Indian soap operas, and historical dramas have become household names in the region.

Sports Diplomacy: Regional Tournaments and Exchanges

• Cricket Diplomacy
  Cricket is one of the most effective soft power tools for India, particularly in its relations with Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Pakistan.
  • India hosts and participates in major regional tournaments like the Asia Cup and bilateral series, enhancing diplomatic goodwill.
  • Cricket stars from South Asia, like Virat Kohli and Shakib Al Hasan, have transcended national boundaries, becoming regional icons.
• SAFF Football Championship
  India plays a key role in organizing and participating in the SAFF Football Championship, bringing together teams from South Asian countries like Nepal, Bangladesh, and Maldives.
  • This tournament fosters regional unity through sports and encourages youth participation across borders.
• Other Sporting Initiatives
  India organizes sports exchanges and training programs for athletes from neighboring countries in badminton, wrestling, kabaddi, and athletics.
  • India’s National Sports Academy often trains athletes from Bhutan, Nepal, and Sri Lanka as part of regional sports cooperation.

[Comparative Analysis of India’s Soft Power Approach Across Different Neighbors: Effectiveness and Limitations]

Neighboring Country	Key Soft Power Initiatives	Effectiveness	Limitations
Bangladesh	Educational exchanges, Bollywood influence, Cricket diplomacy	High cultural influence; strong people-to-people ties	Political tensions over border issues, migration
Nepal	Religious tourism (Buddhist, Hindu), Educational scholarships	Strong cultural ties through religion and language	Political disputes sometimes overshadow cultural diplomacy
Sri Lanka	Ramayana Circuit, Bollywood films, Cricket diplomacy	High influence in media, strong religious connection	Economic and political tensions limit full potential
Afghanistan	Educational programs, Bollywood, infrastructure development	Strong educational ties, media influence	Security concerns restrict broader engagement
Bhutan	Cultural exchanges, educational scholarships, Buddhism ties	Very effective due to shared cultural and religious history	Economic over-dependence on India creates imbalance
Pakistan	Sufi shrines, Bollywood, Cricket diplomacy	Effective through media and sports	Political rivalry often limits soft power impact

XIII. Security and Defense Cooperation

Military Training Programs for Neighboring Countries

• India’s Military Training Initiatives
  India has been actively involved in providing military training programs for neighboring countries, strengthening defense ties and promoting regional stability.
  • The National Defence Academy (NDA) and the Indian Military Academy (IMA) have trained officers from countries like Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, and Myanmar.
  • Specialized training courses are provided in fields like counterinsurgency, peacekeeping, and cybersecurity.
  • India has also helped develop military academies in countries like Afghanistan, where Indian experts contributed to the establishment of the Afghan National Army.
• Technical and Vocational Training
  In addition to traditional military training, India offers technical training to military personnel from neighboring nations, focusing on areas like aviation technology, logistics, and naval operations.
  • India has provided technical expertise to Sri Lanka for naval warfare and to Nepal for mountain warfare tactics.
  • India’s Defence Services Staff College (DSSC) has been a hub for officers from neighboring nations to receive higher-level strategic training.

Intelligence Sharing and Counter-Terrorism Cooperation

• Intelligence Sharing Mechanisms
  India has established intelligence-sharing mechanisms with key neighboring countries to enhance regional security and counter terrorism threats.
  • Intelligence cooperation with Bangladesh has been pivotal in cracking down on cross-border terrorism, including curbing insurgent activities from India’s Northeast.
  • India’s collaboration with Nepal focuses on border security, including tracking illegal migration, smuggling, and terrorist movements.
• Counter-Terrorism Efforts
  India has played a key role in counter-terrorism cooperation with neighbors like Afghanistan, Sri Lanka, and Maldives.
  • Indian security agencies assist Afghanistan in combating groups like Al-Qaeda and the Taliban, while also helping Sri Lanka post-war to counter LTTE remnants.
  • India provides coastal surveillance and counter-terrorism expertise to Maldives, particularly in maritime security.

Joint Military Exercises and Operations

• Bilateral and Multilateral Exercises
  India regularly conducts joint military exercises with neighboring countries to enhance coordination and readiness.
  • Exercise “Mitra Shakti” with Sri Lanka focuses on counter-insurgency and humanitarian assistance operations.
  • Exercise “Sampriti” with Bangladesh highlights joint efforts in peacekeeping and disaster management.
• Naval and Air Force Cooperation
  India and Maldives participate in Operation “Dosti”, a trilateral naval exercise with Sri Lanka aimed at improving maritime security in the Indian Ocean.
  • India and Nepal engage in “Surya Kiran”, focusing on mountain warfare and disaster relief operations.
• Strategic Operations
  India also assists in joint operations for border security and counter-insurgency measures in collaboration with Myanmar to tackle insurgents operating in the Northeast region.

Arms Sales and Technology Transfers

• Defense Exports to Neighbors
  India has increasingly become a defense exporter, providing neighboring countries with military equipment and arms technology.
  • India has supplied armored vehicles, small arms, and artillery to Nepal and Sri Lanka, reinforcing their military capabilities.
  • Bhutan receives significant military hardware from India, especially in terms of border security and surveillance equipment.
• Technology Transfer Programs
  India promotes technology transfers to enhance the defense capabilities of its neighbors, particularly in the areas of radar systems, avionics, and cyber defense.
  • Collaborative projects with Bangladesh include radar and naval technology transfers, while Sri Lanka has received coastal surveillance equipment to secure its borders.
  • India also helps Afghanistan in setting up defense manufacturing plants and infrastructure.

Border Management and Coastal Security Initiatives

• India’s Border Management Framework
  India has undertaken substantial efforts to enhance border management with neighboring countries, focusing on securing borders against infiltration, smuggling, and illegal migration.
  • India and Bangladesh signed the Land Boundary Agreement (2015) to settle longstanding border disputes, allowing for improved coordination in border management.
  • India-Nepal border security initiatives focus on enhanced surveillance and cross-border cooperation to address human trafficking and unauthorized movements.
• Coastal Security Programs
  India is committed to securing the Indian Ocean Region through coastal security programs with Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Mauritius.
  • India’s Sagar (Security and Growth for All in the Region) initiative enhances maritime security in the Indian Ocean, with a focus on counter-piracy operations, fisheries protection, and disaster response.
  • India also provides patrol boats, radar systems, and maritime training to Maldives and Sri Lanka to safeguard their coastlines.

[Comparative Analysis of India’s Defense Engagement with Different Neighbors: Trust-Building Measures vs. Strategic Imperatives]

Neighboring Country	Trust-Building Measures	Strategic Imperatives	Key Challenges
Bangladesh	Intelligence sharing, joint exercises	Border security, counter-terrorism cooperation	Managing cross-border insurgent activities
Nepal	Military training, technical aid	Securing the Himalayan region, limiting Chinese influence	Political instability affects engagement
Sri Lanka	Arms sales, joint naval operations	Ensuring maritime security, post-war reconstruction	Economic and political tensions
Bhutan	Technology transfers, border management support	Securing India’s northern borders	Dependence on India for defense capabilities
Maldives	Coastal security initiatives, patrol boat provision	Securing Indian Ocean, counter-terrorism measures	Vulnerability to maritime security threats
Afghanistan	Military training, counter-terrorism assistance	Combating Taliban, ensuring regional stability	Security challenges and limited infrastructure
Myanmar	Joint operations against insurgents, border cooperation	Counter-insurgency in Northeast India, border security	Political instability and Myanmar’s military rule

XIV. Challenges and Criticisms of India’s Neighborhood Policy

Accusations of Hegemonic Behavior and Interference

• Perception of India’s Dominance
  India has often faced accusations of hegemonic behavior from its neighbors, with many smaller countries perceiving India’s actions as overbearing.
  • Nepal and Sri Lanka have, at times, expressed concerns about India’s interference in their domestic affairs, particularly regarding political changes or policies that affect regional autonomy.
  • Bangladesh and Bhutan have also raised concerns about the imbalance in power dynamics, where India’s size and influence often overshadow smaller nations.
• Response to Hegemonic Accusations
  India has aimed to balance its leadership role with respect for the sovereignty of its neighbors, often referring to its “Neighborhood First” policy.
  • The creation of frameworks like the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was intended to promote regional cooperation rather than dominance.
  • India has also emphasized mutual benefits in its development projects and trade agreements, seeking to mitigate fears of undue influence.

Balancing Act Between Regional Leadership and Cooperation

• India’s Regional Leadership Ambitions
  India has long sought to position itself as a regional leader in South Asia, advocating for economic integration, political stability, and peace.
  • As the largest economy in South Asia, India has led initiatives like SAFTA (South Asian Free Trade Area) and supported smaller economies through development aid and infrastructure projects.
• Challenges in Balancing Leadership and Cooperation
  Balancing regional leadership with cooperation has often been difficult, particularly when India-Pakistan relations dominate the regional discourse.
  • India’s efforts to lead SAARC have been repeatedly stymied by Pakistan’s opposition, leading to stagnation in multilateral cooperation.
  • Smaller countries like Nepal and Sri Lanka sometimes align with external powers such as China to counterbalance India’s influence, further complicating India’s leadership aspirations.

Impact of Domestic Politics on Foreign Policy Decisions

• Influence of Domestic Political Dynamics
  India’s foreign policy towards its neighbors is often shaped by domestic political considerations, including regional elections, coalition pressures, and nationalist sentiment.
  • The India-Bangladesh water-sharing agreements, for instance, have faced delays due to political opposition from state governments like West Bengal.
  • In Nepal, political instability and frequent changes in government leadership have caused fluctuations in bilateral ties.
• Nationalist Influence on Foreign Policy
  Rising nationalist sentiments within India, particularly under the current government, have had an impact on India’s neighborhood policy.
  • Tougher stances on issues like illegal migration and border security, especially concerning Bangladesh and Pakistan, have resulted in strained relations at times.

Consistency and Coherence in Policy Implementation

• Inconsistencies in Policy Approach
  A major criticism of India’s neighborhood policy is its lack of consistency and coherence in implementation, particularly when transitioning between different administrations.
  • For example, the India-Nepal relationship has experienced swings from warmth to tension depending on the political party in power in both countries.
  • Similarly, India’s policy towards Sri Lanka has wavered between support for the Sri Lankan government and concerns over the treatment of Tamil minorities, leading to periods of diplomatic strain.
• Long-term Policy Goals vs Short-term Actions
  While India has long-term strategic goals, such as regional economic integration and security cooperation, short-term actions, often driven by domestic political pressures, can derail those efforts.
  • Economic sanctions on Nepal during the 2015 constitutional crisis created deep distrust, which India has since struggled to rebuild.

Managing External Powers’ Influence in the Region

• China’s Growing Influence
  One of the major challenges India faces in its neighborhood policy is managing the growing influence of China in South Asia.
  • China has made significant inroads in countries like Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, and Maldives through its Belt and Road Initiative (BRI), offering loans, infrastructure projects, and financial aid.
  • India’s concerns stem from China’s increasing involvement in strategic infrastructure projects, such as ports in Sri Lanka (Hambantota) and Pakistan (Gwadar), which could shift the regional balance of power.
• India’s Response to External Influence
  India has attempted to counter external influence through its own initiatives, such as providing concessional loans, investment in regional infrastructure, and military cooperation.
  • India’s Act East Policy has also aimed at increasing cooperation with Southeast Asian nations to broaden its strategic outreach.

Addressing Historical Grievances and Trust Deficits

• Historical Grievances in Bilateral Ties
  Many of India’s neighbors harbor historical grievances that shape their present-day relations.
  • Pakistan’s animosity towards India is rooted in the Partition of 1947 and subsequent wars over Kashmir.
  • Nepal resents India’s involvement in its domestic politics, particularly the 1950 India-Nepal Treaty of Peace and Friendship, which is viewed by some Nepalis as unequal.
• Trust Deficits
  There are considerable trust deficits between India and some of its neighbors, fueled by past conflicts or diplomatic missteps.
  • Sri Lanka has lingering concerns over India’s support for Tamil separatists during the Sri Lankan Civil War, while Bangladesh remembers India’s role in its liberation in 1971, but occasionally criticizes India for its handling of cross-border issues.
• Building Trust through Diplomacy
  India has undertaken efforts to rebuild trust through economic cooperation, cultural diplomacy, and people-to-people exchanges. However, progress has been uneven due to ongoing political challenges and competing regional interests.

[Comparative Analysis of Challenges Faced in Relations with Different Neighbors: Common Themes and Unique Issues]

Neighboring Country	Common Themes	Unique Issues
Bangladesh	Cross-border migration, water-sharing issues	Historical grievances from Partition and border management
Nepal	Perceived Indian interference, power imbalances	Concerns over 2015 blockade and the 1950 treaty
Sri Lanka	Post-war ethnic tensions, India’s support for Tamils	Increased Chinese influence through BRI projects
Pakistan	Ongoing Kashmir conflict, trust deficit	Historical animosity from Partition and numerous wars
Bhutan	Dependence on India, fear of dominance	Navigating Chinese influence while maintaining close ties with India
Maldives	Securing maritime borders, balancing regional powers	Political instability and managing foreign investments from China
Afghanistan	Security cooperation, terrorism threats	India’s aid in nation-building post-Taliban, yet limited direct engagement due to security risks

XV. Legacy and Long-Term Impact

Evolution of India’s Neighborhood Policy Beyond 1964

• Post-1964 Continuities in Foreign Policy
  After 1964, India’s neighborhood policy continued to emphasize regional leadership and non-alignment, with an evolving focus on security, economic cooperation, and diplomacy.
  • The Indo-Pakistani wars of 1965 and 1971 further solidified India’s security concerns in the region, particularly regarding Kashmir and Bangladesh’s liberation.
  • Indira Gandhi’s tenure (1966-1977, 1980-1984) witnessed heightened regional involvement, especially with the Treaty of Peace and Friendship (1971) with Bangladesh and India’s growing involvement in Sri Lanka’s internal conflict during the Tamil insurgency.
• Economic Shifts and Focus on Integration
  In the 1980s and 1990s, India’s economic reforms shifted its neighborhood policy towards promoting economic integration and enhancing trade relations with its neighbors.
  • The creation of the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) in 1985 aimed at fostering regional economic and political cooperation, though India-Pakistan tensions limited its full potential.
  • India’s economic liberalization in 1991 further enhanced its role in the region, focusing on trade, investment, and infrastructure development.

Continuities and Changes in Approach Under Different Governments

• Indira Gandhi’s Strategic Focus
  Indira Gandhi pursued a realist foreign policy, with a strong emphasis on military strength and strategic alliances.
  • The 1971 war and Bangladesh’s independence showcased India’s willingness to intervene directly in its neighborhood to secure its strategic interests.
  • Her government also strengthened India’s position as a regional hegemon by increasing military presence in Sri Lanka and Maldives.
• Rajiv Gandhi’s Diplomacy and Economic Outreach
  Rajiv Gandhi’s government (1984-1989) introduced a more diplomatic and economic-focused approach, promoting technological partnerships and focusing on regional cooperation through SAARC.
  • The India-Sri Lanka Accord (1987) and the deployment of the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in Sri Lanka marked a significant shift in India’s direct involvement in resolving regional conflicts, although it had mixed results.
• Vajpayee’s and Manmohan Singh’s Economic Cooperation Focus
  Atal Bihari Vajpayee’s tenure (1998-2004) marked a further emphasis on economic diplomacy and infrastructure projects aimed at enhancing ties with Bangladesh, Nepal, and Bhutan.
  • Manmohan Singh’s government (2004-2014) strengthened these trends, focusing on regional connectivity projects and signing bilateral trade agreements with neighboring nations to boost South Asian integration.

Lasting Impact of Early Policies on Regional Dynamics

• Security Policies and Military Alliances
  India’s early emphasis on security and military alliances with neighboring countries like Nepal and Bhutan laid the foundation for India’s role as a security guarantor in South Asia.
  • The 1950 Indo-Nepal Treaty and India-Bhutan agreements continue to shape India’s security responsibilities in the region, maintaining its presence in border defense and military cooperation.
• Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) Legacy
  The Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), spearheaded by Jawaharlal Nehru, allowed India to carve out a leadership role in global diplomacy while maintaining a balance between the superpowers.
  • This legacy of neutrality and independent diplomacy has continued to influence India’s foreign policy, especially in multilateral platforms like the United Nations and G-20.
• Regional Cooperation and SAARC
  India’s early involvement in creating SAARC has had a lasting impact on regional cooperation, though it has been limited by India-Pakistan relations.
  • SAARC remains an important mechanism for trade negotiations, cultural exchange, and disaster management, although its political potential has been constrained by bilateral tensions.

Lessons Learned and Missed Opportunities

• Missed Opportunities in Pakistan Relations
  Despite multiple attempts at peace, such as the Tashkent Agreement (1966) and the Shimla Agreement (1972), India’s relationship with Pakistan remains mired in the Kashmir conflict and cross-border terrorism.
  • Missed opportunities include the failure to capitalize on periods of relative peace in the 1990s and early 2000s, which could have improved trade and cooperation.
• Overreliance on Bilateral Relations
  India’s focus on bilateralism rather than multilateral engagement has sometimes limited its ability to leverage regional institutions like SAARC effectively.
  • By relying heavily on bilateral agreements with smaller neighbors like Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh, India has faced challenges in promoting a cohesive regional integration strategy.
• Need for Flexible Diplomacy
  Lessons from India’s involvement in Sri Lanka’s civil war and the deployment of the IPKF highlight the need for flexible diplomacy and cultural sensitivity when intervening in regional conflicts.
  • India’s early policies focused heavily on hard power; a more balanced approach integrating soft power diplomacy could have yielded better long-term relations.

Relevance of 1947-1964 Period in Understanding Contemporary South Asian Geopolitics

• Security Architecture Shaped by Early Policies
  The security arrangements established between India and its neighbors from 1947 to 1964 continue to define the region’s geopolitical landscape.
  • India’s strategic partnerships with Nepal, Bhutan, and Sri Lanka, along with its military presence in the region, ensure that India’s influence remains strong.
• Roots of India-Pakistan Tensions
  The early India-Pakistan conflicts, particularly over Kashmir, continue to dominate South Asian geopolitics.
  • Understanding the roots of the 1947 Partition and the subsequent wars helps explain the persistent distrust and the challenges in achieving lasting peace.
• Economic Relations and Trade Frameworks
  Many of the economic initiatives and trade agreements that began during this period, such as efforts to integrate South Asian economies, remain central to India’s current economic policies.
  • SAARC, despite its limitations, has provided a platform for trade negotiations and regional cooperation in areas like climate change and public health.

[Comparative Analysis of Long-Term Outcomes in Relations with Different Neighbors: Successes, Failures, and Ongoing Challenges]

Neighboring Country	Successes	Failures	Ongoing Challenges
Bangladesh	Liberation support (1971), strong trade ties	Water-sharing disputes, border tensions	Cross-border migration, Rohingya crisis
Nepal	Security cooperation, trade partnerships	Blockades, perceived Indian interference	Political instability, balancing Chinese influence
Sri Lanka	Tamil support (1971), economic cooperation	IPKF intervention, strained post-war relations	Chinese investments, Tamil ethnic tensions
Pakistan	Bilateral agreements (Shimla, Tashkent)	Persistent hostility, failure in peace-building	Kashmir conflict, cross-border terrorism
Bhutan	Long-standing military and economic support	Overdependence on India for security and trade	Navigating Chinese relations, modernization efforts
Maldives	Maritime cooperation, disaster management support	Vulnerability to political instability	Balancing Indian and Chinese influence
Afghanistan	Infrastructure and military support	Limited engagement due to security threats	Taliban resurgence, limited infrastructure

1. Evaluate the effectiveness of India’s soft power diplomacy in shaping its relations with neighboring countries during 1947-1964. (250 words)
2. How did the Cold War dynamics influence India’s approach to regional leadership and its relationships with neighboring countries? (250 words)
3. Analyze the challenges and criticisms faced by India’s neighborhood policy from 1947 to 1964. (250 words)