The 18th century was a period of major change for India. The once-strong Mughal Empire was declining, and many new powers started emerging across the region. Political instability, economic challenges, social transformations, and cultural shifts marked this period. Understanding these changes is important to grasp how modern India began to take shape. This article will explain the political situation, economic conditions, social structures, and cultural aspects of 18th century India in simple words.

18th Century India: Polity

18th Century India: Succession States

Introduction

The decline of the Mughal Empire in the early 18th century led to the emergence of various independent regional powers in India. These new states, known as “Succession States,” were formed by Mughal governors and high officials who took advantage of the weakening central authority to establish their own rule. This phase of Indian history saw a mix of efficient administration, political chaos, and economic changes.

How Succession States Arose

• Emerged from Mughal high title holders and governors.
• Took place after the decay of Mughal central authority.
• Local rulers gained independence while still claiming loyalty to the Mughals.

What Were the Major Succession States?

• Hyderabad
  • Timeline: 1724-1748.
  • Ruler: Nizam-ul-Mulk.
  • Background:
    • Overthrew the Sayyid Brothers and was rewarded with Deccan Viceroyalty.
    • Organized administration efficiently.
    • Abdicated Viceroyalty after Muhammad Shah annulled his reforms and founded Hyderabad state in 1724.
  • Administration:
    • Ran an independent administration but never formally declared independence.
    • Waged wars, made peace announcements, granted jagirs and offices.
    • Followed a secular employment policy.
  • Legacy:
    • Suppressed zamindar uprisings and made them respect his authority.
    • Successfully kept the Marathas out of his territory.
  • Shortcomings:
    • Revenue system suffered from corruption, which he tried but failed to correct before his death in 1748.
• Carnatic
  • Background:
    • Originally a subah under Hyderabad’s authority.
    • Gained independence when Hyderabad became independent.
  • Features:
    • Started hereditary rule without Mughal permission.
    • Frequent fights for Nawabship allowed the British to interfere in politics.
• Bengal
  • Timeline: 1717-1757.
  • Rulers: Murshid Quli Khan, Shuja-ud-Din, Alivardi Khan, Siraj-ud-Daulah.
  • Murshid Quli Khan:
    • Became governor cum ruler by paying high tributes to the Mughal center.
    • Suppressed zamindar rebellions and rewarded loyalists with official titles.
    • Promoted agriculture through loans (taccavi) to farmers to boost production and revenue collection.
    • Followed a secular employment policy.
  • Shortcomings:
    • Fixed revenue rates but collected taxes cruelly.
    • Displaced traditional zamindars, leading to widespread rural poverty.
  • Later Rulers:
    • Alivardi Khan seized power by killing Shuja-ud-Din’s son.
    • Siraj-ud-Daulah lost the Battle of Plassey (1757) due to a weak army.
  • Legacy:
    • High trade awareness and promotion of internal and foreign trade.
    • Established safety measures for trade routes through thanas and chowkies.
    • Strict control over foreign trading companies.
  • Limitations:
    • Poor understanding of British power.
    • Weak military.
    • Corruption in administration and judiciary (Qazis and Muftis).
• Awadh
  • Timeline: 1722-1775.
  • Rulers: Saadat Khan, Safdar Jung, Asaf-ud-Daula.
  • Saadat Khan:
    • Founded hereditary rule in 1722.
    • Suppressed zamindar uprisings through wars, negotiations, and concessions.
    • Carried out fresh revenue settlements benefiting peasants and preventing zamindar oppression.
    • Maintained a secular policy and built a strong, well-armed, and well-paid army.
  • Safdar Jung:
    • Known for just and secular administration.
    • Formed alliances with Marathas, Rajputs, and Jats.
    • Fought wars with Rohelas and Bangash Pathans with the help of allies.
  • Asaf-ud-Daula:
    • Moved the capital from Faizabad to Lucknow in 1775.
    • Ambition to outshine Mughal architecture led to the construction of splendid monuments like Bara Imambara, Qaisar Bagh area, and Rumi Darwaza.
    • Lucknow rivaled Delhi in art, literature, and became a center for handicrafts.

Analysis

• Administration
  • Followed the Mughal administrative and revenue collection methods.
  • However, faced issues due to decentralization.
• Political Conditions
  • Zamindars, petty chiefs, and local officials often challenged higher authorities.
  • Some established local power through negotiations, concessions, and accommodations by rulers.
  • Rulers tried to manage through decentralization and peace agreements.
• Secularity
  • Most succession state rulers made public appointments in civil and military sectors without religious bias.
  • Rebellions were driven by socio-economic factors rather than religion.
• Anarchy
  • Law and order frequently broke down in many regions.
• Economy
  • Revenue farming led to heavy exploitation of peasants.
  • Jagirdars practiced rack-renting.
  • Increase in the number of zamindars led to higher demands for surplus production.
  • Trade was promoted internally and externally but basic modernization of industrial and commercial structures was neglected.
  • This neglect led to the economic failure of many states.

18th Century India: Rebellious States

Introduction

In the 18th century, as the Mughal Empire declined, many groups across India rebelled to establish their own authority. These rebellious states were formed by communities that were earlier under Mughal control. Driven by the weakening of central power and local ambitions, these groups created new political centers. This article explains the rise of rebellious states such as the Rajputs, Jats, Sikhs, Rohillas, Bangash Pathans, and Marathas in simple words.

Rajput States

• Perspective
  • Became free from Mughal control due to the empire’s decay.
  • Sought to increase their political influence.
• Important Ruler: Jai Singh
  • Ruled from 1699 to 1743.
  • A distinguished statesman, lawmaker, and reformer.
• Contributions
  • Science
    • Promoted scientific knowledge among Rajputs.
    • Established many observatories for accurate astronomical observations.
  • Architecture
    • Founded Jaipur city with a regular plan based on scientific principles.
    • Introduced a grid system with broad streets intersecting at right angles.
  • Social Reforms
    • Imposed laws to reduce lavish expenses on daughters’ weddings.
    • Aimed to curb female infanticide caused by financial burdens.
• Limitations
  • Faced anarchy due to internal quarrels and civil wars.
  • Administration suffered from corruption, intrigue, and treachery.
• Mughal Relations
  • During Farrukh Siyar and Muhammad Shah’s rule, Rajput leaders held governor posts for Amber and Marwar.

Jats

• Who They Were
  • Mainly agriculturalists, peasants, and zamindars from Delhi, Agra, and Mathura regions.
• Timeline
  • 1669: First revolt crushed.
  • 1688: Second revolt crushed, area not fully occupied.
  • 1707: After Aurangzeb’s death, they rose again.
• Characteristics
  • Known for selfish actions focused on personal gains.
• Rulers
  • Churaman and Badan Singh
    • Founded the Bharatpur kingdom.
  • Suraj Mal (1756-1763)
    • Able administrator, skilled soldier, and wise statesman.
    • Controlled Agra, Delhi, Ganga-Chambal, Mathura, Meerut, and Aligarh.
    • Followed the Mughal revenue system.
    • After his death in 1763, the Jat power declined.

Bangash Pathans

• Founder: Muhammad Bangash, an Afghan adventurer.
• Territory: Area between Aligarh and Kanpur.

Rohillas

• Formation
  • After Nadir Shah’s invasion.
  • Founded by Ali Muhammad Khan.
• Location
  • Rohilkhand at the foothills of the Himalayas.
• Conflicts
  • Fought wars against Awadh, Delhi/Mughals, and Jats.

Sikhs

• Founders
  • Guru Nanak (late 15th century) founded Sikhism.
  • Guru Hargobind (1606-1645) transformed Sikhs into a fighting community.
  • Guru Gobind Singh (1666-1708) made Sikhs a political and military force, fighting Aurangzeb.
• Leadership
  • Banda Singh Bahadur
    • Led peasants and lower castes.
    • Defeated due to opposition from upper castes and Mughal strength.
• Revival
  • Invasions by Nadir Shah and Ahmed Shah Abdali helped Sikhs rise again.
  • Between 1765-1800, they controlled Jammu and Punjab.
• Administration
  • Earlier:
    • Organized into 12 misls (confederacies) with cooperation, equality, and democracy.
  • Later:
    • Dominated by feudal chiefs and zamindars.
• Important Ruler: Ranjit Singh (from 1799)
  • Administration
    • Good administrator following Mughal land revenue methods.
    • Appointed talented ministers and officials.
    • Controlled Sikh chiefs west of the Sutlej.
  • Military
    • Built the second-best army after the British.
  • Religious Tolerance
    • Promoted religious tolerance in politics and patronage.
  • After his death, the British conquered Punjab.

Marathas

• About
  • Filled the power vacuum after Mughal decay.
  • Waged constant wars against the Mughals.
  • Could not replace the Mughals to form an all-India empire.
• Rulers and Key Leaders
  • Shahu
    • Shivaji’s grandson; imprisoned by Aurangzeb.
    • Fought a civil war against Tara Bai of Kolhapur.
  • Maharaja Sindhia
    • Great soldier.
    • Built a powerful European-style army with Hindu and Muslim soldiers.
    • Controlled Shah Alam in Delhi and made the Mughal king his deputy.
    • Died in 1794.
• Sardars
  • Maratha administrators who had their own loyal armies.
  • Showed efficiency and brilliance.
  • Lacked unity and thirsted for personal power.
  • Often joined Mughal viceroys against their own rulers.
• Peshwas (Prime Ministers)
  • Balaji Vishwanath (1713-1720)
    • Revenue official who helped Shahu suppress enemies and won over sardars.
    • Peshwa became the functional head of administration.
    • Strengthened sardars with increased patronage.
  • Baji Rao I (1720-1740)
    • Skilled commander and statesman.
    • Used excellent guerilla tactics.
    • Expanded territory in Malwa, Gujarat, and Bundelkhand.
    • Forced Hyderabad and Portuguese to cede territories.
  • Balaji Baji Rao (1740-1761)
    • Administration transferred to Peshwa after Shahu’s death.
    • Helped Mughal officials but faced defeat at the Battle of Panipat (1761) against Ahmad Shah Abdali.
    • This defeat weakened Maratha political power.
  • Madhav Rao (1761-1772)
    • Restored lost Maratha power.
    • Re-established control over North India.
    • Helped Shah Alam II return to the Delhi throne.
• Poona Struggle for Power
  • Violent struggle between Raghunath Rao and Narayan Rao.
  • After Narayan Rao’s death, his son Sawai Madhav Rao became ruler.
  • First Anglo-Maratha War occurred during this struggle.
• Baji Rao II
  • Son of Raghunath Rao.
• British Involvement
  • 2nd and 3rd Anglo-Maratha Wars.
  • British used diplomacy to defeat warring Maratha sardars.
  • Remaining sardars were made subsidiary states under British control.
• Reasons for Maratha Fall
  • Social and administrative weaknesses like the Mughals.
  • Peshwas focused more on expansion than governance.
  • Sardars cared only for autonomy and revenue collection.
  • Saranjami system became similar to Jagirdari, burdening peasants.
  • No sound administration outside Maharashtra.
  • No strong loyalty among the people.

18th Century India: Independent States

Introduction

In the 18th century, besides succession and rebellious states, some regions in India remained completely independent. These states neither arose from Mughal provinces nor from rebellion but established and maintained their sovereignty through their own strength. Their leaders built powerful economies, strong militaries, and vibrant societies. This article explains the key features of independent states like Mysore and Kerala, highlighting their administration, economy, military advancements, and cultural contributions in simple words.

Why They Were Called Independent States

• Independent from Mughal rule.
• Not successor states or rebellious states.
• Formed their own governance without Mughal approval.

What Were the Major Independent States?

• Mysore
  • When: 1761-1799.
  • Rulers:
    • Hyder Ali
      • Character:
        • Keen intellect, energetic, determined, and brilliant commander.
      • Biography:
        • Rose from a petty officer in the Mysore army.
        • Took advantage of war opportunities to climb up.
        • Introduced western military training to his troops.
        • Built a modern arsenal.
        • Overthrew Nanjaraj in 1761 and became ruler of Mysore.
        • Made Mysore a leading Indian power.
      • Polity:
        • Conquered Bidnur, Sunda, Sera, Canara, and Malabar to access the Indian Ocean.
        • Fought wars with Maratha sardars, Nizam, and the British.
        • Won the First Anglo-Mysore War (1769), forcing the Madras Council to sign a favorable treaty.
      • Administration:
        • Followed the Mughal administrative and revenue system.
        • Maintained a secular employment policy.
      • Death:
        • 1782, succeeded by Tipu Sultan.
    • Tipu Sultan
      • Character:
        • Complex personality, brave, brilliant commander, innovator, and avid reader.
      • Polity:
        • Fought against the British.
        • Recognized as the most serious threat by the British.
        • Second Anglo-Mysore War: Ended with no clear victory.
        • Third Anglo-Mysore War: Defeated, ceded half of Mysore’s territory.
        • Fourth Anglo-Mysore War (1799): Killed fighting the British.
      • Administration:
        • Increased jagirs to enhance state income.
        • Removed hereditary poligars and middlemen to improve governance.
      • Economy:
        • Agriculture:
          • Well-cultivated fields.
          • Although land revenue was high (one-third of gross produce), efficiency and fairness prevented hardship.
        • Trade:
          • Saw economy as the foundation of military strength.
          • Promoted wide-scale trade and commerce.
          • Sent emissaries to France, Turkey, Iran, China, and Myanmar.
          • Established European-style trading institutions.
      • Military:
        • More disciplined and loyal army than other Indian states.
        • Infantry armed with muskets and bayonets in European fashion.
        • Modernized navy, built dockyards, and designed ship models himself.
        • Innovated iron rockets:
          • Rockets had greater range (over 2 km) and more power.
          • Used effectively in Mysore Wars against the British.
          • British later developed their own rockets (Congreve rockets) after learning from Tipu’s innovations.
      • Society:
        • Peasants were richer compared to those under British Madras control.
        • Protected, encouraged, and rewarded the peasantry.
        • New cities developed.
        • Maintained a secular policy, even building Hindu temples.
      • Culture:
        • Innovator:
          • Introduced a new calendar, coinage, and standard weights and measures.
        • Enthusiastic reader:
          • Maintained a rich library with books on diverse subjects.
          • Took a keen interest in the French Revolution.
• Kerala
  • Polity:
    • Kerala was divided among feudal chiefs and rajas.
    • Important regions:
      • Calicut:
        • Ruled by the Zamorin.
      • Travancore:
        • Capital: Trivandrum.
        • Marthanda Varma (1729 onwards):
          • Determined, brave, and courageous.
          • Expanded territory from Kanyakumari to Cochin.
          • Defeated the Dutch colonial forces.
          • Improved administration with irrigation works, roads, and communication canals.
          • Promoted foreign trade.
          • Westernized military with modern weapons and arsenals.
        • Rama Varma:
          • Poet, scholar, actor, and cultured ruler.
          • Fluent in English and interested in European affairs.
      • Chirakkal and Cochin:
        • Other notable divisions.
    • In 1766, Hyder Ali invaded Kerala up to Cochin but could not capture Travancore territories.
  • Culture:
    • Rich literary revival in Malayalam.
    • Trivandrum became famous for Sanskrit scholarship.
    • Many patrons promoted arts and learning.

18th Century India: Economy

Introduction

The 18th-century Indian economy reflected a mixed picture of stagnation, resilience, and slow transition. Even as agriculture remained backward and industries faced political disturbances, trade continued both within Asia and with Europe. While there was no significant economic boom, there was also no complete collapse, creating a complex but balanced situation. This article explains the main aspects of the 18th-century Indian economy in simple words.

Agriculture

• Agriculture remained mostly backward and stagnant.
• Production was high, but farmers could not benefit due to:
  • Rack renting by zamindars, jagirdars, and revenue farmers.
  • Heavy taxation and oppression.
• The oppressive revenue collection system kept farmers poor despite good harvests.

Trade

• India was largely self-sufficient in local needs.
• Exports were greater than imports, helping balance trade with gold and silver inflows.
• Extent of Trade:
  • Extensive trade within Asia and Europe.
  • Maritime trade expanded.
  • Inland trade was affected by:
    • Bandits and smugglers on trade routes.
    • Petty chiefs who charged high custom duties when goods crossed their territories.
    • Nobles becoming poor, reducing the purchase of luxury goods.
• Imports:
  • From Persia: pearls, wools, dates, dried fruits, rose water.
  • From Arabia: gold, coffee, drugs, honey.
  • From China: silk, porcelain, tea, sugar.
  • From Tibet: gold, musk, woolen cloth.
  • From Singapore: tin.
  • From Indonesia: spices, perfumes, sugar.
  • From Africa: ivory, drugs.
  • From Europe: woolen cloth, copper, iron, lead, paper.
• Exports:
  • Cotton textiles (most important export).
  • Raw silk and silk fabrics.
  • Hardware.
  • Indigo.
  • Saltpetre (KNO₃).
  • Opium.
  • Rice.
  • Wheat.
  • Sugar.
  • Spices, especially pepper.
  • Precious stones.
  • Drugs.

Industry

• Disruption:
  • Political instability seriously affected industries, especially those in cities.
  • Nadir Shah’s plundering of Delhi, Ahmed Shah Abdali’s invasions in Lahore and Delhi, and attacks by Jats, Marathas, and Sikhs damaged urban industries.
  • Lack of patrons for artisans led to a decline in craftsmanship.
• Recovery:
  • Some recovery occurred with the expansion of European trade and the establishment of new cities by nobles, zamindars, and the British.
• Important Industries:
  • Handicrafts Industry:
    • Indian artisans were globally renowned for their skills.
  • Textile Industry:
    • India’s textiles were highly famous across the world.
  • Shipbuilding Industry:
    • Indian-built ships were so good that even the British bought them.

Overview

• People’s Life:
  • Worsened due to a lack of progress.
  • Revenue demands kept increasing.
  • Revenue farmers and zamindars oppressed farmers.
  • Nobles’ greed and frequent marches of rival armies created instability.
  • Adventurers added to the chaos.
• Overall Economic Performance:
  • Neither a complete rise nor a full decline.
  • Economy remained stagnant compared to the 17th century’s progress.
  • Handicrafts and agriculture continued without major collapse, reducing the extent of suffering.
• Land of Contrasts:
  • Wealth and justice were not distributed equally.
  • British control later worsened these inequalities.

18th Century India: Society

Introduction

Society in 18th-century India was highly diverse and complex. It did not follow a uniform pattern across the subcontinent. Differences were based on religion, region, caste, tribe, and language. Though religious discrimination was mostly absent, caste-based discrimination was deeply rooted. This article explains the structure of society, the role of caste, the status of women, and the prevalent social customs during this period in simple words.

No Uniform Patterns

• Society was divided by:
  • Religion
  • Region
  • Caste
  • Tribe
  • Language
• Upper classes were more privileged than the lower classes.

Discriminations

• Religious Discrimination
  • Mostly absent in society.
• Caste Discrimination
  • Major form of social division.
  • Among Hindus:
    • Caste system acted as the major splitting force.
    • Became more complex with the infusion of new varnas.
    • Brahmins enjoyed a monopoly over important jobs.
    • Inter-caste marriage and dining with lower castes were forbidden.
    • Professions:
      • Trade and government services were mostly controlled by Brahmins.
      • Shudras sometimes rose to high positions and gained wealth.
    • Caste regulations were strictly enforced by:
      • Caste councils
      • Caste chiefs
      • Panchayats
  • Among Muslims:
    • Discrimination existed between Shias and Sunnis.
    • No equal status among different groups:
      • Irani
      • Afghani
      • Turani
      • Hindustani Muslims
    • Sharif Muslims (nobles, scholars, priests, army officers) looked down upon common Muslims.

Women

• Status in Family
  • Society was mostly patrilineal (male lineage) except among the Nairs of Kerala, who followed matrilineal traditions.
  • Women were respected and honored:
    • They could go out alone.
    • Their homes were viewed as sanctuaries.
  • Despite respect, women had less individuality.
  • Movement:
    • Upper-class women generally did not go out.
    • Peasant and poor women worked outside to support their families.
  • Purdah (Veil System):
    • Common in North India.
    • Rare in South India.
• Marriage Customs
  • Men and women were allowed to interact before marriage.
  • One man could have multiple wives, but a woman could have only one husband.
  • Child marriage was common, with girls married as young as 4-5 years.
  • Lavish marriage expenses were common:
    • Dowry practices were widespread in Bengal, Rajputana, and Maharashtra.
    • Peshwas in Maharashtra tried to curb dowry practices.
• Social Evils
  • Sati (self-immolation of widows):
    • Practiced mainly in Bengal, Rajputana, and northern parts.
    • Marathas did not encourage sati.
  • Widowhood:
    • Widows faced:
      • Disrespect.
      • Severe restrictions on clothing, diet, words, and movements.
      • Treated like servants by the husband’s family.
    • Reforms:
      • Jai Singh promoted widow remarriage, though it was not widespread.

Conclusion

The 18th century was a period of significant transition in Indian history. Politically, the weakening of the Mughal Empire led to the rise of successor states, rebellious regions, and independent powers. Each tried to build strong administrations but struggled with internal conflicts, revenue exploitation, and lawlessness. Economically, although agriculture and industry faced stagnation, India’s trade networks remained extensive, showing resilience. Society continued to be divided by caste, region, and religion, with caste discrimination standing out sharply. Women’s position remained largely constrained, but small reform movements began to emerge. Culturally, despite instability, India experienced remarkable achievements in literature, architecture, and science. Overall, the 18th century set the stage for the dramatic political changes and social movements that would follow under colonial rule.

1. Explain the political and economic characteristics of succession, rebellious, and independent states in 18th-century India. (250 words)
2. Discuss how internal conflicts and administrative failures influenced the economy and society of 18th-century India. (250 words)
3. Analyze the continuity and change in the cultural, social, and political spheres of 18th-century India despite the decline of centralized power. (250 words)