12.3 Communalism and the politics of partition

I. Introduction to Communalism and Partition Politics

Definition of Communalism

• Communalism is a belief system that emphasizes the primacy of one’s religious community, often leading to inter-group conflict.
• It is not just a social phenomenon but a political ideology that mobilizes religious communities for political purposes.
• The ideology prioritizes the interests and identity of a specific religious group, sometimes at the expense of societal harmony.

Political Ideology and Mobilization

• Communalism involves the strategic mobilization of religious identities to achieve political goals.
• Political leaders exploit religious affiliations to consolidate power and influence electoral outcomes.
• This mobilization often results in heightened tensions and conflicts between different religious communities.

Historical Context: British Colonial Influence

• The roots of communalism in India can be traced back to the British colonial period, where the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ was employed.
• The British administration fostered divisions between Hindus and Muslims to weaken the unified opposition to colonial rule.
• The introduction of separate electorates for Muslims in 1909 under the Morley-Minto reforms institutionalized communal divisions.

Evolution: Key Incidents Shaping Communalism

• The Partition of Bengal in 1905 was an early instance of communal division, leading to protests and eventual reversal in 1911.
• The Khilafat Movement (1919-1924) aimed to protect the Ottoman Caliphate and temporarily allied Hindus and Muslims, but highlighted communal tensions.
• Direct Action Day in 1946, called by the Muslim League, resulted in widespread riots and marked a significant escalation in communal violence leading to partition.

Effects: Social Conflict and Political Implications

• Communalism leads to social conflict, resulting in numerous riots and loss of life, disrupting social harmony.
• It fosters an environment of mistrust and hostility between communities, impacting societal cohesion.
• Politically, communalism influences elections and policy decisions, often marginalizing minority communities.
• The partition of India in 1947, creating Pakistan, was a direct consequence of communal politics, resulting in mass migration and significant loss of life.
• The legacy of partition continues to influence communal relations in India, with ongoing tensions and periodic violence outbreaks.

II. Historical Background of Partition

Pre-Colonial Harmony

• Hindu-Muslim Unity
  • Existed before British rule
  • Shared cultural and social practices
  • Coexisted peacefully for centuries
  • Interactions in trade and governance

British Divide and Rule

• Policy Implementation
  • Introduced to weaken Indian unity
  • Fostered divisions among communities
  • Emphasized religious identities
  • Created separate electorates in 1909

Partition of Bengal 1905

• Administrative and Communal Implications
  • Proposed by Lord Curzon for administrative ease
  • Divided Bengal into East Bengal and Assam, and West Bengal
  • Aimed to separate Hindu-majority and Muslim-majority regions
  • Met with widespread resistance and protests
  • Led to the Swadeshi Movement advocating for self-reliance
  • Annulled in 1911 due to mass protests

Role of Political Leaders

• Jinnah and the Muslim League
  • Muhammad Ali Jinnah emerged as a key leader
  • Advocated for Muslim rights and representation
  • The Muslim League founded in 1906 to protect Muslim interests
  • Jinnah’s leadership pivotal in demanding a separate Muslim state

Lahore Resolution

• Demand for Pakistan
  • Passed by the All-India Muslim League in 1940
  • Proposed the creation of independent states for Muslims
  • Emphasized geographical regions with Muslim majorities
  • Did not explicitly mention ‘Pakistan’ but laid the groundwork
  • Viewed as a turning point in the demand for a separate nation
  • Led to the eventual creation of Pakistan in 1947

III. Ideological Foundations of Communalism

Religious Identity

• Construction of ‘Others’
  • The concept of constructing ‘others’ is central to communal ideology, where identity is defined by differentiating one community from another.
  • This construction encourages division between communities, reinforcing in-group versus out-group dynamics.
  • Political leaders often utilize this differentiation to consolidate power by emphasizing differences and creating a sense of threat from the ‘other.’

Elite Politics

• Sustaining Communal Ideologies
  • Elites often manipulate religious sentiments to sustain communal ideologies for their political gains.
  • By fostering divisions, they maintain control over communities, ensuring that communal tensions serve their interests.
  • Many elites, while secular in their personal lives, publicly promote communal narratives to appeal to religious sentiments.
  • This compartmentalization allows them to navigate personal and political interactions differently, often exacerbating communal tensions for political advantage.

Fear and Aggression

• Politicians Exploiting Communal Sentiments
  • Fear is a powerful tool used by politicians to control communities, often inciting aggression against minority groups.
  • By whipping up aggression, politicians can rally support and divert attention from other issues, using communal sentiments to their advantage.
  • Fear and aggression reinforce stereotypes and prejudices, leading to unpredictable behavior and communal violence.
  • This exploitation of communal sentiments often results in riots and social unrest, further entrenching communal divides.

Institutionalized Riot Systems

• Mechanisms of Communal Violence
  • Paul Brass’s theory of institutionalized riot systems explains how communal violence is orchestrated and sustained.
  • These systems involve the press, police, and local leaders, who exploit communal divides for political gain.
  • The process includes preparation, activation, and explanation phases, where riots are used to legitimize communal ideologies.
  • Such violence serves to entrench communal narratives, with civic links being crucial for restoring stability post-conflict.
  • Institutionalized riot systems highlight the organized nature of communal violence, revealing how deeply embedded these mechanisms are in political strategies.

IV. Political Developments Leading to Partition

British Strategies

• The British strategically weakened the national movement in India to maintain control over the subcontinent.
• They implemented the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’, fostering divisions among Indian communities to prevent a united front against colonial rule.
• This strategy involved supporting communal organizations and exploiting religious differences to create political instability.

Separate Electorates: Morley-Minto Reforms

• The Morley-Minto Reforms of 1909, also known as the Indian Councils Act, introduced separate electorates for Muslims.
• This system allowed only Muslims to vote for Muslim candidates, effectively institutionalizing communal representation in Indian politics.
• The reforms aimed to curb the growing nationalist movement by dividing Indians along religious lines.
• These reforms were named after Viceroy Lord Minto and Secretary of State John Morley.

Lucknow Pact 1916

• The Lucknow Pact was an agreement between the Indian National Congress and the All-India Muslim League, signed in Lucknow in 1916.
• It marked the first significant cooperation between the two major political parties in India.
• The pact aimed to present a united front to the British, demanding self-governance and more autonomy for Indians.
• It allowed for separate electorates for Muslims, acknowledging the need for communal representation.
• The pact increased the influence of the Muslim League in Indian politics and highlighted the communal aspect of Indian politics.

Cabinet Mission 1946

• The Cabinet Mission arrived in India on 24 March 1946 to discuss the transfer of power from the British government to Indian leaders.
• The mission was led by Lord Pethick-Lawrence, Sir Stafford Cripps, and A. V. Alexander.
• It proposed a three-tier administrative structure with a Federal Union at the top, provinces at the bottom, and groups of provinces in the middle.
• The mission aimed to preserve India’s unity while granting independence.
• The plan failed due to distrust between the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League, leading to the appointment of Lord Mountbatten as the new viceroy.

Direct Action Day

• Direct Action Day was declared by the All-India Muslim League on 16 August 1946.
• The day marked a demand for a separate Muslim homeland, leading to widespread communal riots, particularly in Calcutta.
• Known as the Great Calcutta Killings, the violence resulted in thousands of deaths and highlighted the deep communal divisions in India.
• The failure of the Cabinet Mission Plan and the subsequent violence underscored the inevitability of partition as a solution to communal tensions.

V. Communal Politics and Nationalism

Nationalism vs. Communalism

• Nationalism in India historically aimed to unite diverse communities against colonial rule, emphasizing a collective identity transcending religious differences.
• Communalism, on the other hand, focuses on the primacy of religious identity, often leading to division and conflict among communities.
• Ideological Differences
  • Nationalism promotes unity and inclusivity, seeking to integrate various cultural and religious groups into a cohesive national identity.
  • Communalism emphasizes religious identity, often at the expense of national unity, fostering division and mistrust.
  • Nationalism is rooted in the idea of a shared struggle for independence and self-determination, while communalism exploits religious differences for political gain.

Role of Congress

• The Indian National Congress (INC), founded in 1885, played a pivotal role in the struggle for independence, advocating for a secular and inclusive national identity.
• Challenges in Unifying India
  • The INC faced significant challenges in unifying a diverse population with multiple religions, languages, and cultures.
  • Despite efforts to promote secularism, the rise of communal politics often undermined the INC’s attempts at fostering national unity.
  • The INC’s commitment to secularism sometimes conflicted with the demands of religious communities, leading to tensions and divisions.

Muslim League’s Position

• The All-India Muslim League, founded in 1906, emerged as a significant political force advocating for the rights and interests of Muslims in India.
• Demand for Separate Nation
  • The Muslim League, under the leadership of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, increasingly demanded a separate nation for Muslims, leading to the call for Pakistan.
  • This demand was rooted in the belief that Muslims constituted a distinct nation with unique cultural and religious identities that needed separate representation.
  • The demand for Pakistan gained momentum in the 1940s, culminating in the partition of India in 1947.

British Influence

• The British colonial administration played a crucial role in shaping communal politics in India, often supporting divisive policies to maintain control.
• Support for Partition
  • The British employed the policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ to weaken the national movement by fostering divisions between Hindus and Muslims.
  • The acceptance of the ‘Two-Nation Theory’ by the British further legitimized the demand for a separate Muslim state, leading to the partition.
  • British policies, such as separate electorates and communal representation, institutionalized religious divisions, complicating efforts for unity.

VI. Impact of Communalism on Society

Social Division

• Communalism in India has led to significant social division along religious and ethnic lines, fragmenting communities that once coexisted peacefully.
• This division is evident in the formation of self-conscious communities that identify primarily with their religious affiliations, often at the expense of broader national or social identities.
• The creation of ‘us vs. them’ mentalities has fueled mistrust and hostility, exacerbating tensions between different religious and ethnic groups.

Economic Disruption

• Communalism has disrupted economic development by creating an environment of instability and uncertainty, which deters investment and economic growth.
• Communal tensions often lead to the destruction of property and businesses, resulting in financial losses and economic setbacks for affected communities.
• The economic impact is particularly severe in urban areas, where communal riots can halt trade and commerce, affecting livelihoods and employment opportunities.

Communal Riots

• Communal riots have become a recurring feature in India’s socio-political landscape, with historical occurrences dating back to the colonial period.
• These riots are often sparked by political interests rather than genuine religious animosity, with underlying factors including competition for resources and political power.
• Major riots, such as those in Ahmedabad in 1969 and 1985, highlight the recurring nature of communal violence and its devastating impact on society.
• The riots often result in significant loss of life and property, leaving lasting scars on the affected communities and perpetuating cycles of violence.

Post-Independence Violence

• Despite India’s independence in 1947, communal tensions have persisted, leading to continued violence in the post-independence era.
• The rise of political movements such as Hindutva in the late 20th century has further fueled communal tensions, leading to incidents like the Babri Masjid demolition in 1992.
• Post-independence violence is often linked to political strategies that exploit religious sentiments for electoral gains, further entrenching communal divides.
• Efforts to curb communal violence have been challenged by the deep-rooted nature of these tensions and the political interests that benefit from them.

VII. Critiques of Communalism and Partition

Historiographical Debates

• Historiographical debates on communalism and partition have been central to understanding the complexities of Indian history.
• Scholars like Romila Thapar, Harbans Mukhia, and Bipan Chandra have critically examined the communal approach to Indian history.
• These debates often focus on the interpretations of partition, questioning how communal narratives have shaped historical understanding.
• The book Communalism and the Writing of Indian History (1969) presents critical perspectives on how communal interpretations have obstructed the study of Indian history.
• Sudhir Chandra argues that communalism is a representation of reality, challenging the notion that nationalism was the sole objective reality of the time.

Secular vs. Communal Historiography

• Secular historiography seeks to highlight the long tradition of harmony and togetherness among communities in India.
• In contrast, communal historiography focuses on conflicts and divisions, often emphasizing religious identities.
• Secular historians argue for a more nuanced understanding of history that considers political, social, and economic factors beyond religious differences.
• The tension between secular and communal historiography reflects broader ideological battles over the interpretation of India’s past.

Popular Agency

• Popular agency refers to the role of ordinary people in shaping communal politics and historical events.
• Historians have debated the extent to which popular agency influenced the partition and communal violence.
• Some argue that grassroots movements and local dynamics played a significant role, while others emphasize top-down political strategies.
• The complexity of popular agency highlights the need to consider both elite manipulation and grassroots activism in historical narratives.

Elite Manipulation

• Elite manipulation involves the use of religion and politics by powerful groups to achieve specific goals.
• During the partition, elites often exploited religious sentiments to mobilize support and further their political agendas.
• This manipulation is evident in the way communal tensions were heightened to serve political interests, leading to widespread violence.
• Understanding elite manipulation is crucial for analyzing the interplay between religion and politics in historical and contemporary contexts.

VIII. Conclusion and Legacy of Partition

Long-term Effects

• The partition of India in 1947 had profound long-term effects on identity and memory, shaping the national consciousness of both India and Pakistan.
• Identity and Memory
  • The partition led to a significant population exchange, redefining the concepts of ‘us’ and ‘them’ in the region.
  • This event has left an indelible mark on national identities, influencing how communities perceive themselves and others.
  • The trauma and suffering experienced during the partition continue to resonate in the collective memory of the subcontinent, affecting inter-community relations.

Sociological Implications

• The sociological implications of partition are evident in the generational dynamics that have emerged in its aftermath.
• Generational Dynamics
  • Older generations who lived through the partition often carry memories of loss and displacement, impacting their worldview and interactions with other communities.
  • Younger generations, while not directly experiencing the partition, inherit these memories, which shape their understanding of identity and belonging.
  • The partition has influenced cultural narratives, with stories and experiences passed down through generations, reinforcing communal identities.

National Unity

• The challenges to national unity post-partition have been significant, as the division along religious lines created lasting tensions.
• Challenges Post-Partition
  • The creation of Pakistan as a separate Muslim state and India as a secular nation led to ongoing disputes and conflicts, particularly over regions like Kashmir.
  • Efforts to promote national unity have been complicated by these historical divisions, with communal tensions occasionally erupting into violence.
  • Political strategies often exploit these tensions for electoral gains, further hindering efforts toward reconciliation and unity.

Lessons Learned

• Addressing communalism today requires learning from the past and implementing strategies to foster inclusivity and tolerance.
• Addressing Communalism Today
  • Promoting interfaith dialogue and understanding is crucial to bridging the divides created by partition.
  • Educational reforms that emphasize shared histories and cultural contributions can help dismantle stereotypes and prejudices.
  • Policies aimed at economic development and social integration can reduce the socio-economic disparities that often fuel communal tensions.
  • Recognizing and addressing the root causes of communalism, such as political manipulation and historical grievances, is essential for building a cohesive society.

The legacy of partition continues to influence the socio-political landscape of South Asia, highlighting the need for concerted efforts to address the divisions it created. Understanding the long-term effects, sociological implications, and challenges to national unity can guide strategies to foster a more inclusive and harmonious future.