13.5 Regionalism and regional inequality

I. The Genesis of Regionalism in India

Origins of Regionalism: Tracing the Roots of Regional Identities in Pre-colonial India

• Geographical factors
  • India’s vast geographical diversity played a significant role in the development of regional identities. Natural barriers like mountains, rivers, and forests isolated certain regions, allowing them to develop distinct languages, customs, and governance systems.
  • The Indus Valley Civilization (circa 3300–1300 BCE) provides early evidence of regionalism, with distinct cultures like Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro having their own administrative structures and urban planning.
  • Regionalism was also promoted by the Gangetic Plain, Deccan Plateau, and Eastern Ghats. Each area fostered independent cultural, linguistic, and political identities over time.
• Cultural and Linguistic Diversity
  • India’s rich linguistic diversity, with major languages like Sanskrit, Prakrit, and later Tamil, Kannada, and Telugu, fostered strong regional identities.
  • The Sangam period (circa 300 BCE–300 CE) of Tamil literature exemplifies the development of distinct regional cultures based on language, literature, and art, particularly in South India.
  • The Bhakti and Sufi movements further strengthened regional identities by promoting devotion through local languages like Bengali, Marathi, and Telugu.

Regional Kingdoms and their Political Cultures

• Independent Regional Kingdoms
  • The Maurya Empire (322–185 BCE) and Gupta Empire (320–550 CE) attempted political centralization, but regional kingdoms like the Cholas, Chalukyas, and Pallavas maintained significant autonomy, fostering distinct regional cultures.
  • Post-Gupta fragmentation saw the rise of independent states such as the Rashtrakutas (753–982 CE), Pandyas, and Cholas, which prioritized local governance, unique administrative systems, and cultural development.
  • The Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE), which ruled much of South India, blended local traditions with Hindu revivalism, while fostering distinct administrative and military practices, contributing to regionalism.
• Regional Administrative Structures
  • Kingdoms like the Cholas and Pandyas developed highly organized administrative systems, with local councils (like the ur and sabha) managing towns and villages, promoting local governance autonomy.
  • In North India, the Rajput kingdoms (post-7th century CE) like Mewar, Marwar, and Bundelkhand had independent rulers, with each kingdom preserving its regional traditions, laws, and governance structures.
  • Regional identities further solidified with the rise of Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE) and the Mughal Empire (1526–1707 CE), as local rulers often negotiated with the central authority, retaining autonomy in governance and culture.

Colonialism and its Impact on Regionalism

• British Administrative Divisions
  • The British colonial administration created Presidencies like Bengal, Madras, and Bombay, reinforcing regional boundaries and deepening local identities. The fragmentation of Awadh and other princely states under British rule further entrenched regional divisions.
  • The Regulating Act of 1773 and the Pitt’s India Act of 1784 centralized British authority but left regional rulers and structures intact, thereby strengthening local identities.
• Economic Exploitation and Regional Disparities
  • The Permanent Settlement of 1793 disproportionately benefited Bengal while impoverishing other regions like Bihar and Odisha, leading to long-standing economic disparities.
  • The British focus on developing certain regions—such as the industrial hubs of Bombay and Calcutta—exacerbated economic inequality, leading to distinct regional grievances.
  • The economic policies of the British, including the introduction of railways in 1853, further benefited certain regions (primarily port cities like Bombay), deepening the divide between the prosperous regions and the hinterlands.
• Indirect Rule and Regional Fragmentation
  • The British utilized indirect rule, especially in princely states like Hyderabad, Travancore, and Mysore, to maintain control while allowing local rulers significant autonomy, fostering further regionalism.
  • The Doctrine of Lapse (introduced by Lord Dalhousie in 1848) led to the annexation of various princely states, which incited localized resistance and intensified regional grievances.

Social Stratification and Regional Identities

• Caste-based Stratification
  • Varna and Jati systems shaped regional identities, with different regions having unique caste hierarchies. In South India, the dominance of the Brahmins in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh led to resistance movements like the Self-Respect Movement (founded by Periyar in 1925).
  • Regional identities were further fragmented by caste-based reservation policies during British rule, such as the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) and Government of India Act (1919), which introduced separate electorates for backward castes, reinforcing regional caste divisions.
• Religion and Regional Identity
  • Religious identities also contributed to regionalism, especially in states like Punjab (Sikhism), Kashmir (Islam), and Kerala (a unique mix of Hinduism, Christianity, and Islam). These religious divides often overlapped with regional identities, strengthening distinct local cultures.
  • The Partition of Bengal (1905) by Lord Curzon split the province on religious lines, strengthening both religious and regional identities. Although it was reversed in 1911 due to widespread protests, the division left a lasting impact on regional consciousness in Bengal.
• Tribal Identities and Regionalism
  • Tribal groups in regions like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and North-East India maintained distinct regional identities, often resisting both colonial and post-colonial centralization.
  • Movements like the Santhal Rebellion (1855–56) and the Munda Uprising (1899–1900) were driven by regional grievances and tribal autonomy aspirations. These uprisings highlighted how tribal communities resisted external control, fostering a strong sense of regional identity.

Colonialism vs Pre-colonial Administration

Aspect	Pre-colonial Administration	Colonial Administration
Governance Style	Localized, decentralized (e.g., Chola administration, Rajputs)	Centralized, direct rule in British-administered areas; indirect rule in princely states
Economic Policy	Self-sufficient economy, regional trade (Cholas, Vijayanagar)	Economic exploitation, focus on extraction (Permanent Settlement, railways)
Impact on Regionalism	Regional identities tied to language, culture, local governance	Intensified regional disparities through economic and administrative policies
Response to Authority	Regional rulers often resisted external control (Rajputs, Vijayanagar)	Resistance movements based on regional grievances (Santhal Rebellion, Bengal Partition)

II. Regional inequality post-independence

Understanding regional inequality

• Defining regional inequality
  • Regional inequality refers to the uneven distribution of resources, opportunities, and development across different regions within a country. In India, this inequality emerged starkly post-independence as certain states and regions experienced rapid economic growth while others lagged behind.
  • Historical roots: The seeds of regional inequality were sown during the colonial period, where British policies of resource extraction and favoring certain regions (like Bombay and Calcutta) over others laid the foundation for post-colonial disparities.
  • Post-independence scenario: After 1947, India adopted a centralized planning model that, despite focusing on national development, led to unequal development across regions. This resulted in varying economic and social outcomes among different states and regions, exacerbating disparities.

Economic disparities between regions

• Post-colonial industrial development
  • Industrial hubs: States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu quickly became industrialized due to favorable policies, infrastructure, and proximity to ports. These regions benefited from policies like the establishment of public sector units (PSUs) and heavy industries, while other states, such as Bihar, Odisha, and Madhya Pradesh, remained largely agrarian and underdeveloped.
  • Five-Year Plans: While India’s planning process intended to promote balanced growth, the First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956) and subsequent plans favored already industrialized regions. Heavy industries like steel in Jamshedpur, iron and steel in Bhilai, and textiles in Mumbai further entrenched economic disparities.
  • Infrastructural development: Regions with better infrastructure, such as western India, thrived. In contrast, regions like the North-East and Eastern India suffered from inadequate roads, railways, and power supply, which hindered their industrial and economic development.
• Agricultural disparities
  • Green Revolution (1960s-1970s): The Green Revolution transformed the agriculture of certain regions, especially Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, through high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, chemical fertilizers, and irrigation techniques. These regions became breadbaskets of India, whereas other regions, particularly Eastern India and Southern India, were left out, leading to significant agricultural disparities.
  • Land reforms: While land reform policies like Zamindari Abolition were implemented across India, they were more successful in some states, such as Kerala and West Bengal, where they helped redistribute land and reduce inequality. In contrast, states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh saw limited success, which perpetuated agrarian inequality.
• Uneven resource allocation
  • Resource-rich states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh continued to experience underdevelopment due to poor governance, lack of infrastructure, and the exploitation of resources for industrial development in other states. The mining sector, particularly in Dhanbad and Korba, boosted the economies of distant regions while leaving the host regions with environmental degradation and poverty.

Political inequality

• Centralized power structure
  • The centralized nature of India’s political system after independence meant that regions with strong political representation in the center, such as Delhi, Punjab, and Tamil Nadu, could leverage their influence for economic development. Other regions, particularly in the North-East and Central India, were marginalized due to weak political representation.
  • Bureaucratic decision-making: Policy decisions taken at the center, often reflecting the interests of better-developed states, further marginalized poorer regions. This led to a concentration of resources and funds in politically influential states like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka, leaving poorer states like Bihar and Odisha struggling to compete.
• State-level governance and regional inequality
  • States with better governance models, such as Kerala (which prioritized social development), flourished, whereas states with poor governance, such as Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, saw limited economic progress. This political inequality was not only a matter of governance quality but also rooted in historical, social, and economic structures that favored some regions over others.

Social inequality

• Caste and regionalism
  • Caste-based disparities: Post-independence India continued to grapple with caste-based inequality, and this often intersected with regionalism. States with a higher proportion of Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), such as Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, and the North-East, faced systemic social and economic exclusion, further deepening regional inequality.
  • Backward classes and OBCs: The rise of Other Backward Classes (OBCs) in political representation in states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh led to shifts in power but did not translate into significant economic upliftment for the backward regions, especially in rural areas.
• Gender inequality and regional variation
  • Gender disparities were often pronounced in less developed regions, particularly in Northern India, where patriarchal norms restricted women’s access to education, employment, and political participation. In contrast, Southern states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu showcased relatively better gender equality, with higher female literacy rates and employment opportunities.
• Tribal identities and regional exclusion
  • Tribal regions, particularly in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and the North-East, remained economically and socially excluded post-independence. Despite special provisions in the Indian Constitution, such as Article 244 (which deals with the administration of Scheduled Areas and Tribal Areas), these regions continued to face exploitation, displacement due to development projects, and lack of access to basic services.

Regional inequality in education and health

• Educational disparities
  • Literacy rates: States like Kerala achieved near-universal literacy by the 1980s, while Bihar, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh lagged significantly behind. As of the 2011 census, Kerala had a literacy rate of 94%, while Bihar’s was just 63%.
  • School enrollment: The southern states, including Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, saw higher levels of school enrollment and retention, thanks to schemes like mid-day meals and free uniforms. In contrast, Northern India and Central India struggled with high dropout rates, particularly among Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
  • Higher education: Regional disparities were also evident in access to higher education. Metropolitan cities like Delhi, Bangalore, and Mumbai became hubs of higher education with numerous universities and research institutions, whereas many rural areas and smaller towns lacked access to such opportunities.
• Healthcare access and disparities
  • Healthcare infrastructure: Southern states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu had well-developed healthcare infrastructure, with a high ratio of hospitals and healthcare professionals per capita. In contrast, states like Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Jharkhand experienced a severe shortage of hospitals, doctors, and healthcare facilities, leading to poor health outcomes.
  • Infant mortality rate (IMR): In 2011, Kerala had one of the lowest IMRs at 12 per 1,000 live births, while Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh had among the highest at 56 and 53, respectively.
  • Maternal health: Disparities in maternal healthcare were stark, with northern and central regions seeing high maternal mortality rates (MMR). In states like Assam and Bihar, poor maternal healthcare facilities contributed to an MMR above the national average, while Tamil Nadu and Kerala achieved significantly lower MMRs due to effective health policies and institutional support.

III. Economic policies and regional disparities

Centralized planning and regional inequality

• Centralized economic planning
  • India adopted a centralized planning model post-independence, led by the Planning Commission (established in 1950). This approach aimed at rapid industrialization and national development but often resulted in uneven regional growth.
  • The central government’s focus on heavy industries and industrial hubs, such as in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu, created significant wealth disparities across the country. States like Bihar and Odisha received fewer industrial investments, perpetuating regional underdevelopment.
  • Public sector enterprises (PSUs) were concentrated in certain regions, exacerbating regional income inequalities as developed states reaped economic benefits from industrialization, while others remained primarily agrarian.
• Impact on rural regions
  • Rural regions, especially in Eastern India and parts of Central India, lagged behind economically as centralized planning prioritized urban industrialization over rural development. This created a stark urban-rural divide in terms of infrastructure, employment opportunities, and income levels.

Five-Year Plans and their regional outcomes

• First Five-Year Plan (1951-1956)
  • The First Five-Year Plan focused on agriculture, irrigation, and land reforms, but its success was regionally skewed. Areas with pre-existing agricultural infrastructure, such as Punjab, benefited greatly, while states like Odisha and Bihar continued to struggle with inadequate irrigation and rural development.
• Second Five-Year Plan (1956-1961)
  • This plan emphasized heavy industries and industrialization, concentrating investments in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and West Bengal. Industrial regions experienced rapid development, leaving agrarian economies in states like Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, and the North-East relatively stagnant.
• Third Five-Year Plan (1961-1966)
  • The Third Plan aimed at balanced regional development, but regional disparities persisted as industrialized states continued to grow at a faster pace than rural and underdeveloped regions.
• Uneven sectoral development
  • The focus on different sectors in the Five-Year Plans—industry, agriculture, and the service sector—resulted in disproportionate growth across states. Industrial states became economic powerhouses, while agricultural regions remained largely dependent on outdated techniques and saw limited modernization.

Regional income differences

• Per capita income gaps
  • States like Maharashtra, Delhi, and Tamil Nadu developed strong industrial economies and thus enjoyed higher per capita income levels, while Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Odisha faced lower income levels due to their continued reliance on agriculture and lack of industrialization.
  • By the 1970s, the difference in per capita income between Punjab and Bihar had widened considerably, showcasing the growing income divide between industrialized and non-industrialized states.
• Employment and poverty rates
  • States with high levels of industrialization and service sectors, like Karnataka, had better employment opportunities, leading to lower poverty rates. Meanwhile, states like Uttar Pradesh and Jharkhand, which remained primarily agrarian, experienced higher unemployment and poverty levels.
  • The National Sample Survey Office (NSSO) data consistently showed regional differences in unemployment and poverty rates, with southern and western states faring better than northern and eastern regions.

The Green Revolution and its regional impact

• Agricultural modernization
  • The Green Revolution, initiated in the 1960s, focused on transforming agriculture through high-yielding variety (HYV) seeds, fertilizers, and irrigation. However, its benefits were primarily concentrated in Punjab, Haryana, and Western Uttar Pradesh, which had better irrigation and agricultural infrastructure.
• Regional disparity in agriculture
  • While the Green Revolution led to impressive increases in agricultural productivity in the northern states, Eastern India, including Bihar, West Bengal, and Odisha, saw limited benefits due to inadequate irrigation, poor infrastructure, and the smaller landholdings of farmers.
  • This disparity contributed to food insecurity and low agricultural productivity in eastern regions, while states in the Green Revolution belt became food surplus zones.
• Socio-economic impact
  • The Green Revolution also had significant socio-economic consequences. In Punjab and Haryana, it led to rural prosperity, higher farmer incomes, and improved standards of living. However, in Eastern India, where the revolution was less effective, farmers continued to face poverty and debt.
• Environmental concerns
  • Over time, the Green Revolution regions, especially Punjab, also faced environmental degradation due to excessive use of fertilizers and water-intensive crops like wheat and rice. In contrast, regions that did not benefit from the revolution, like Assam and Jharkhand, did not face such environmental stresses but continued to lag economically.

Green Revolution	Punjab-Haryana	Eastern India
Agricultural output	High yield from HYV seeds	Limited due to poor infrastructure
Socio-economic development	Prosperity in rural areas	Continued farmer poverty
Long-term consequences	Environmental degradation	Lagging agricultural productivity

Resource distribution

• Access to natural resources
  • States rich in natural resources, like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and Odisha, were paradoxically underdeveloped due to poor governance, exploitation by industries, and the failure to reinvest the wealth generated from mining into local development.
• Water resources
  • Water resources were also unevenly distributed, with states like Punjab benefiting from extensive irrigation networks built during the Green Revolution, while states like Bihar and West Bengal suffered from frequent floods and droughts due to inadequate water management.
• Energy and minerals
  • While coal mining and mineral extraction in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh powered the industrialization of other regions, these states themselves remained underdeveloped, with poor access to energy and basic infrastructure like roads and schools.
• Natural resource conflicts
  • Conflicts over the distribution of resources, such as water disputes between states (e.g., Cauvery River dispute between Tamil Nadu and Karnataka), further exacerbated regional disparities as states with better access to resources often gained an economic advantage over their neighbors.

IV. Politics of regionalism

Political decentralization

• Political decentralization in India
  • Post-independence India adopted a quasi-federal structure as enshrined in the Indian Constitution (1950), which sought to balance power between the central government and state governments. However, the central government’s dominance in decision-making led to increasing dissatisfaction among regional political entities.
  • The centralization of power in the hands of the Union government, particularly through provisions like Article 356 (President’s rule), often sidelined regional demands. This was seen as an attempt to curb regional autonomy, which fueled regionalist movements.
  • As a result, regional aspirations grew, especially in areas where the center’s economic policies were perceived as benefiting specific regions while neglecting others. Regions like Tamil Nadu, Punjab, and the North-East began demanding more autonomy to address local concerns, including language, culture, and resources.
• Panchayati Raj
  • The introduction of the Panchayati Raj system through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act (1992) aimed at strengthening local governance and decentralizing power to the grassroots level. This was seen as a response to growing regional demands for more control over local resources and governance.
  • The decentralization process, however, had mixed results, with more politically and economically developed states benefiting more than underdeveloped states, further exacerbating regional inequalities.

Rise of regional political parties

• Emergence of regional political parties
  • Dissatisfaction with the centralized approach to governance gave rise to regional political parties across different states, each representing local aspirations and issues. Prominent among these were the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), founded in 1949 by C.N. Annadurai in Tamil Nadu, which was initially driven by anti-Hindi sentiments and demands for greater state autonomy.
  • All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK), formed in 1972 by M.G. Ramachandran, further solidified regional politics in Tamil Nadu, becoming a dominant player in state and national politics by emphasizing Tamil identity and state-specific issues.
  • In Maharashtra, the Shiv Sena (founded in 1966 by Bal Thackeray) emerged with the Maharashtra for Maharashtrians slogan, focusing on the Marathi identity and asserting regional pride. This party grew as a reaction to the perceived dominance of non-Marathi migrants in Mumbai and economic neglect of local populations.
• Andhra Pradesh and the Telugu Desam Party (TDP)
  • The Telugu Desam Party (TDP), founded in 1982 by N.T. Rama Rao, emerged as a response to the perceived marginalization of Telugu-speaking populations in national politics. The party advocated for Telugu pride and demanded greater resources and development for Andhra Pradesh.
  • The TDP quickly became a dominant political force in Andhra Pradesh, representing the state’s regional interests at both state and national levels and aligning with the broader trends of regionalism in Indian politics.

Demands for statehood

• Telangana movement
  • The Telangana movement began in the 1950s but gained momentum in the 1990s and 2000s, driven by the perception that the region of Telangana (part of Andhra Pradesh) was economically neglected and underdeveloped compared to the coastal Andhra region.
  • After decades of protests and political struggles, the Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS), led by K. Chandrashekar Rao, played a crucial role in advocating for a separate state. Telangana was eventually carved out as a separate state in 2014.
• Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, and Chhattisgarh
  • The demand for Uttarakhand (carved out of Uttar Pradesh in 2000) emerged from a distinct regional identity based on the hill people’s culture and their feeling of marginalization by the plains-dominated state government.
  • Jharkhand, which was also formed in 2000 out of Bihar, had a long-standing movement based on the demands of tribal populations for autonomy over their land and resources.
  • Chhattisgarh was created from Madhya Pradesh in 2000, primarily due to the region’s distinct cultural and economic identity, with local leaders arguing that the area was being economically neglected by the state government.

Electoral dynamics and regionalism

• Coalition governments and regional parties
  • Regional parties played a crucial role in shaping coalition governments at the national level, particularly after the decline of the Congress party’s dominance in the 1990s. The emergence of coalition politics under the United Front government (1996-1998) and National Democratic Alliance (NDA) in 1999 saw regional parties becoming key stakeholders in national governance.
  • Parties like the DMK, TDP, and Shiv Sena gained significant leverage in central politics, extracting concessions and resources for their respective states in exchange for political support.
  • The 2004 general election further demonstrated the power of regional parties in shaping national politics, as coalitions like the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) were formed with the help of regional actors.
• Impact on regional policies
  • Regional parties, when part of coalition governments, often pushed for state-specific development projects, financial aid, and infrastructure improvements for their home states. For example, the TDP under N. Chandrababu Naidu negotiated with the central government to secure substantial investments in information technology for Hyderabad during his tenure as Chief Minister.

Regionalism as a challenge to national integration

• Centrifugal forces of regionalism
  • Regionalism, when left unchecked, can become a centrifugal force threatening national unity. This occurs when regional identities and interests are prioritized over national identity, leading to demands for greater autonomy or even secession, as seen in the Khalistan movement in Punjab during the 1980s.
  • In the North-East, movements for greater autonomy, such as the Naga movement and Mizo National Front (MNF) rebellion, posed significant challenges to India’s territorial integrity. These movements were driven by ethnic identities and economic neglect, resulting in armed insurgencies and calls for secession.
• Efforts to address regionalism
  • The Indian government has used various strategies to address the challenges posed by regionalism. This includes granting special status to regions under Article 371, creating new states to address regional demands, and decentralizing power through Panchayati Raj institutions.
  • Additionally, economic policies have been revised to address regional disparities, such as the Backward Regions Grant Fund (BRGF), aimed at developing economically lagging areas, particularly in Bihar, Odisha, and Rajasthan.

V. Regional movements and sub-nationalism

Sub-nationalism vs nationalism

• Sub-nationalism as political challenge
  • Sub-nationalism refers to movements that seek political, cultural, or economic autonomy for a region within a nation-state, often challenging the unity of the state. These movements differ from nationalism, which aims at creating or preserving a sovereign nation-state.
  • In India, sub-nationalism emerged due to diverse factors like ethno-linguistic identity, economic grievances, and perceived political marginalization. While regionalism is focused on cultural identity within a national framework, sub-nationalism involves demands for political autonomy or even secession.
• Regionalism as cultural identity
  • Regionalism emphasizes regional pride and cultural uniqueness within the larger framework of the Indian nation. It does not inherently seek political separation but may demand greater autonomy in governance, resource distribution, and recognition of local cultures.
  • Sub-nationalism, on the other hand, often includes political objectives that go beyond cultural identity and seek to alter the political structure of the country, as seen in movements like Khalistan in Punjab.

Aspect	Sub-nationalism	Regionalism
Scope	Seeks political autonomy	Seeks cultural recognition within national framework
Political Demands	Can demand secession or autonomy	Focuses on more local autonomy or devolution of powers
Outcomes	Potential separatism, threat to unity	Greater regional empowerment, cultural pride

Ethno-linguistic movements

• Gorkhaland movement
  • The Gorkhaland movement is rooted in the demand for a separate state for the Nepali-speaking population of West Bengal, primarily located in the Darjeeling region. It began in the 1980s under the leadership of Subhash Ghising and the Gorkha National Liberation Front (GNLF), demanding statehood to protect the cultural and linguistic identity of the Gorkhas.
  • Although an autonomous Gorkhaland Territorial Administration (GTA) was created in 2011, demands for full statehood persist due to perceived administrative neglect by the West Bengal government.
• Dravidian movement
  • The Dravidian movement emerged in Tamil Nadu in the early 20th century as a response to the perceived domination of the North Indian Brahminical culture and Hindi imposition. The movement sought to protect the Tamil identity and resist the centralization of power in New Delhi.
  • Spearheaded by organizations like Justice Party (1917) and later by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), founded by C.N. Annadurai in 1949, it emphasized linguistic and cultural autonomy. The movement initially flirted with secession but later focused on greater autonomy within the Indian Union.
• Mizo National Front (MNF)
  • The Mizo National Front (MNF) led by Laldenga initiated an armed struggle in 1966 to create an independent state for the Mizo people in Mizoram, alleging neglect by the central government. The insurgency ended with the signing of the Mizo Peace Accord in 1986, granting Mizoram full statehood and special provisions for autonomy under Article 371G of the Constitution.

Economic discontent and separatist movements

• Khalistan movement
  • The Khalistan movement sought to create a separate Sikh state in Punjab during the 1980s, driven by both religious identity and economic grievances. The Green Revolution had transformed Punjab into an agricultural powerhouse but also created disparities and discontent among farmers and rural communities.
  • The movement, led by separatist leaders like Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, culminated in the violent Operation Blue Star in 1984, where the Indian military stormed the Golden Temple to remove militants. Although the movement has weakened, its legacy continues to influence Punjab’s regional politics.
• Assam and economic grievances
  • The Assam Movement (1979-1985), led by the All Assam Students Union (AASU), initially focused on illegal immigration from Bangladesh, but it was also driven by the economic neglect of Assam. Despite being rich in natural resources like oil and tea, Assam remained underdeveloped, leading to discontent and demands for regional autonomy.
  • This led to the rise of the United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA), a militant organization that sought to create an independent Assam. Though peace talks have since reduced violence, economic grievances continue to fuel regional tensions.
• Kashmir and economic isolation
  • In Jammu & Kashmir, economic discontent intertwined with demands for political autonomy. The state’s unique position, recognized under Article 370 (abrogated in 2019), created tensions with the central government. Local industries, especially tourism and handicrafts, suffered due to ongoing insurgency and military presence, further alienating the population.
  • Separatist groups like the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front (JKLF), founded by Amanullah Khan in 1977, demanded outright independence from India. The insurgency has led to significant economic devastation in the region.

Role of insurgency in regionalism

• Insurgency in the North-East
  • The North-Eastern region of India, particularly states like Nagaland, Manipur, and Assam, has witnessed various insurgent groups that use regional grievances to justify armed conflict. Movements like the Naga National Council (NNC), led by Angami Zapu Phizo, called for an independent Nagaland, leading to decades of conflict.
  • The signing of the Shillong Accord in 1975 brought temporary peace, but breakaway factions like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) continued the armed struggle. Economic underdevelopment, lack of integration, and ethnic diversity have perpetuated the insurgency.
• Insurgency in Jammu & Kashmir
  • In Jammu & Kashmir, regional insurgent groups like Hizbul Mujahideen and JKLF leveraged local grievances, including economic isolation and political marginalization, to fuel the ongoing conflict. The insurgency has claimed thousands of lives and led to widespread human rights abuses, complicating efforts to integrate the region fully into India.
  • The insurgency in Kashmir is also driven by external actors, particularly Pakistan, which provides support to insurgent groups in the region, making the conflict both an internal and international issue.

VI. Regional imbalances and the role of governance

Federalism and regional imbalance

• India’s quasi-federal system
  • India’s political structure is described as quasi-federal, combining both federal and unitary features. This system aims to balance the autonomy of states with the central government’s authority.
  • However, regional imbalances persist as the centralized control over resources often favors certain states over others, leading to unequal distribution of wealth and development.
  • States like Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Tamil Nadu—with strong industrial bases—tend to benefit more from central policies compared to Bihar, Odisha, and Uttar Pradesh, which continue to struggle with economic stagnation.
  • Economic backwardness in these states is further exacerbated by inefficient governance and lack of infrastructure, leading to a cycle of underdevelopment.
• Impact of regional imbalances
  • Disparities between developed and underdeveloped states are reflected in various economic indicators like per capita income, poverty rates, and infrastructure development. The southern states have fared better due to better governance models and higher economic investments.
  • Northern and eastern states have historically lagged behind, contributing to internal migration and the creation of economic hubs in a few select states, thus further widening the regional divide.

Special status to states

• Article 370 (Jammu & Kashmir)
  • Article 370 granted special autonomy to Jammu & Kashmir after its accession to India in 1947. The state had its own constitution and significant control over internal matters except for defense, foreign affairs, and communications.
  • The special status was removed in 2019, leading to the bifurcation of the state into two Union Territories—Jammu & Kashmir and Ladakh. The move was justified by the central government as a way to integrate the region and promote economic development, but it also raised concerns about its impact on regional identity and autonomy.
• Article 371 (North-East and other states)
  • Article 371 and its sub-clauses provide special provisions for various states, including the North-Eastern states, Maharashtra, and Gujarat. These provisions focus on protecting tribal interests, granting autonomy in certain legislative and administrative matters, and ensuring resource management benefits the local population.
  • For example, Article 371A provides special rights to the state of Nagaland regarding customary laws and ownership of natural resources, while Article 371G grants autonomy to Mizoram in matters of religious and social practices.
  • These special provisions aim to protect the distinct cultural and economic needs of these regions, but their implementation often leads to tensions between local and central governments regarding resource allocation and economic development.

Fiscal federalism

• Fiscal federalism in India
  • Fiscal federalism refers to the financial relations between the central and state governments, particularly how revenues are shared, and funds are allocated for development.
  • The central government collects most of the revenue, including income tax, corporate tax, customs duties, and GST, while states receive a share based on recommendations from the Finance Commission.
  • However, wealthier states like Karnataka, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu contribute significantly more revenue than they receive in return, while poorer states receive larger allocations to address regional disparities.
• Impact on regional inequality
  • The allocation of central funds disproportionately benefits poorer states like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh, but mismanagement and governance issues in these states often prevent effective utilization of these resources.
  • Southern states, despite contributing more to national revenues, often argue that they receive inadequate funds in comparison to their contribution, leading to demands for more equitable financial relations between states and the center.
• Fiscal federalism: Southern states vs northern states
  • Southern states: Higher revenue contribution, better governance models, higher HDI (Human Development Index), lower poverty rates
  • Northern states: Lower revenue contribution, receive higher fund allocation, higher poverty rates, lower HDI

Governance failure and regional backwardness

• Governance failure in backward states
  • States like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Odisha have consistently performed poorly in terms of economic and social development due to chronic governance failures. Corruption, poor infrastructure, and ineffective bureaucracies have led to stagnation.
  • Bihar, for example, has one of the highest poverty rates and lowest literacy rates in India, despite receiving substantial financial assistance from the central government. Similarly, Uttar Pradesh struggles with high levels of unemployment and poor health outcomes.
• Impact of poor governance on regional inequality
  • Governance failure not only perpetuates backwardness but also drives internal migration. Migrants from underdeveloped regions move to urban centers like Delhi, Mumbai, and Bangalore, further straining the resources of these cities and contributing to the growth of informal economies.
  • Poor governance also hinders foreign direct investment (FDI), as investors are reluctant to invest in states with weak legal frameworks and infrastructure deficits, thus perpetuating a cycle of underdevelopment.

The role of Panchayati Raj in addressing or exacerbating regional imbalances

• Introduction of Panchayati Raj
  • The Panchayati Raj system was introduced through the 73rd Constitutional Amendment Act in 1992 to decentralize governance and empower local communities. It aims to promote grassroots democracy by involving rural populations in decision-making processes and local administration.
• Positive impact of Panchayati Raj
  • In states like Kerala and Tamil Nadu, the Panchayati Raj system has had a positive impact by promoting decentralized planning, improving local governance, and ensuring better implementation of development programs.
  • These states have witnessed improvements in rural infrastructure, healthcare, and education due to effective utilization of local governance mechanisms.
• Challenges in backward regions
  • In contrast, states with poor governance like Bihar and Odisha have struggled to effectively implement the Panchayati Raj system. Corruption, lack of political will, and weak institutional frameworks have limited the system’s ability to address regional disparities.
  • In these states, the Panchayati Raj system has often failed to make a significant impact on reducing poverty or improving infrastructure, highlighting the importance of state capacity and governance quality in addressing regional imbalances.

VII. Economic liberalization and regional disparities

Impact of 1991 economic reforms on regional inequalities

• 1991 economic reforms
  • The economic liberalization initiated in 1991, led by Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao and Finance Minister Manmohan Singh, transformed India’s economy by opening it up to global markets, encouraging privatization, and reducing government control over industries.
  • These reforms promoted liberalization, privatization, and globalization (LPG), leading to rapid industrial growth in states that were already well-equipped with infrastructure and industries, such as Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu.
  • However, states like Bihar, Jharkhand, and the North-East remained largely outside the sphere of these economic changes due to poor infrastructure, lack of investments, and continued political instability.
• Widening regional disparities
  • Liberalization accelerated the economic gap between industrialized states and lagging regions, particularly because the industrial growth was concentrated in areas with pre-existing infrastructure.
  • For example, Gujarat and Maharashtra quickly attracted both domestic and foreign investments due to better connectivity, urban centers, and a business-friendly environment, whereas regions like Eastern India and North-East India saw little economic growth.

Growth poles: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka

• Gujarat
  • Post-liberalization, Gujarat emerged as a major industrial hub, particularly due to the presence of port cities like Ahmedabad and Surat, which facilitated trade and investment.
  • The Gujarat Industrial Development Corporation (GIDC) played a crucial role in establishing industrial estates, and the state witnessed rapid growth in sectors like automobile, pharmaceutical, and chemical industries.
• Maharashtra
  • Maharashtra, already the most industrialized state by 1991, further strengthened its position post-liberalization, with Mumbai emerging as the country’s financial capital.
  • Growth in sectors like information technology, banking, and media helped Maharashtra maintain its economic dominance, with the Mumbai-Pune corridor becoming a key industrial and commercial belt.
• Tamil Nadu
  • Tamil Nadu positioned itself as a leader in automobile manufacturing, earning the nickname of Detroit of India, with companies like Hyundai, Ford, and BMW establishing manufacturing plants in Chennai.
  • The state also saw significant growth in information technology, textiles, and electronics, making it one of the most diversified economies in post-liberalization India.
• Karnataka
  • Karnataka, particularly its capital Bangalore, became a global hub for information technology and software services. Post-liberalization, Bangalore emerged as the Silicon Valley of India, with multinational corporations like Microsoft, IBM, and Infosys establishing a major presence.
  • The Karnataka State Industrial Investment and Development Corporation (KSIIDC) played a crucial role in creating industrial estates and fostering IT development, further boosting the state’s economy.

Backward regions in a globalized economy

• Bihar and Jharkhand
  • States like Bihar and Jharkhand, despite their natural resource wealth, remained largely outside the economic boom post-liberalization. Bihar, with its high levels of political instability and poor infrastructure, failed to attract industrial investments.
  • Jharkhand, despite having abundant mineral resources like coal and iron ore, remained underdeveloped due to poor governance and exploitation by industries without adequate reinvestment into the local economy.
• North-East India
  • The North-East region, due to its geographical isolation, poor infrastructure, and frequent political unrest, was left out of the rapid industrial growth. States like Assam, despite being rich in oil and tea, faced severe underdevelopment due to a lack of connectivity and inadequate government investment.
• Economic exclusion
  • These backward regions faced economic exclusion as they lacked the necessary infrastructure, skilled labor, and political stability to take advantage of the liberalization reforms, leading to a further widening of the economic gap between developed and underdeveloped states.

Industrialization and SEZs

• Special Economic Zones (SEZs)
  • Post-liberalization, the establishment of Special Economic Zones (SEZs) became a key driver for industrial growth in certain regions. SEZs offered tax incentives, duty-free imports, and other benefits to attract foreign investment.
  • States like Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu established several SEZs, contributing to the development of industries like IT, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles.
• Regional imbalances deepened
  • While SEZs led to rapid industrialization in states like Gujarat and Maharashtra, regions like Bihar, Jharkhand, and the North-East were left out of the SEZ boom. These states lacked the infrastructure and policy support necessary to attract SEZ investments.
  • As a result, the creation of SEZs further deepened the regional imbalances, concentrating wealth and industrial growth in a few select states while leaving others behind.

Migration and regional disparity

• Internal migration
  • Post-liberalization, internal migration patterns became more pronounced, with people from underdeveloped regions like Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Jharkhand migrating to urban centers in Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka in search of better employment opportunities.
  • Migration led to the growth of urban slums and the informal economy in these industrial hubs, as a large proportion of migrants found employment in unorganized sectors.
• Rural-urban divide
  • The growing rural-urban divide became evident as urban areas witnessed rapid industrial growth and infrastructure development, while rural regions continued to struggle with poor access to education, healthcare, and basic amenities.
  • This divide contributed to further regional inequality, as developed regions absorbed the economic benefits of liberalization while backward areas remained mired in poverty.

Aspect	Pre-1991 Economy	Post-1991 Economy
Growth patterns	More state-controlled, limited growth	Rapid growth in select states
Industrial hubs	Few industrial centers, mainly agrarian	Growth in Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu
Agricultural output	Primarily agrarian economy	More diversified with industrial focus

VIII. The role of identity in regionalism

Caste-based regionalism

• Intersection of caste identities and regionalism
  • Caste-based regionalism has played a crucial role in Indian politics, particularly in southern and northern India, where caste identities intersect with regional political movements.
  • In Tamil Nadu, the rise of the Dravidian movement in the early 20th century challenged the dominance of Brahminical elites and sought to empower the non-Brahmin castes through political and social reforms.
  • Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, a prominent social reformer, launched the Self-Respect Movement in 1925, which promoted anti-caste ideologies and laid the foundation for the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK), emphasizing the rights of lower castes and regional autonomy for the Tamil people.
  • In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, caste-based political mobilization led to the rise of parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), founded in 1984 by Kanshi Ram, which focused on representing Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs). The BSP’s focus on regional and caste-based identity politics redefined the political landscape of these northern states.
• Caste dynamics in electoral politics
  • Regional political movements in southern states such as Tamil Nadu saw caste as a key factor in shaping political identity and regional autonomy. The reservation policies for backward castes further cemented the relationship between caste and regionalism.
  • In northern India, regionalism based on caste has often intersected with demands for land reform and economic empowerment. Movements such as the Mandal Commission’s recommendations (1980) expanded reservations for OBCs, creating significant political momentum in northern states, which has had lasting impacts on regional power structures.

Religious regionalism

• Religious identity fueling regional autonomy
  • Religious regionalism has been a powerful force in Indian politics, particularly in the cases of Punjab, Jammu & Kashmir, and Kerala.
  • The Khalistan movement in Punjab emerged in the 1980s as a separatist movement led by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale, demanding an independent Sikh state. The movement was fueled by religious identity and the perception of political and economic marginalization within the broader Indian Union.
  • In Jammu & Kashmir, religious regionalism intertwined with political demands for greater autonomy. The state’s unique status under Article 370 provided it with special rights, but tensions between its Muslim-majority population and the Indian state have led to ongoing demands for autonomy or independence, resulting in violent insurgencies.
  • In Kerala, religious regionalism has been less about separatism and more about maintaining a balance between its Hindu, Christian, and Muslim communities, all of which have played pivotal roles in shaping the state’s political identity and demands for regional autonomy.
• Impact of religious regionalism on national integration
  • Movements like Khalistan and the insurgency in Kashmir have posed significant challenges to India’s national unity. Religious-based demands for autonomy often lead to long-term conflicts that require careful negotiation between regional identity and national sovereignty.

Ethnic and tribal regionalism

• Tribal demands for autonomy
  • Ethnic and tribal regionalism has been a key feature of Indian politics, particularly in regions like Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and the North-East. Tribal communities in these areas have historically been marginalized both politically and economically, leading to demands for greater autonomy.
  • The Adivasi movements in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh called for the creation of separate states to address their socio-economic grievances. Jharkhand was carved out of Bihar in 2000, and Chhattisgarh was separated from Madhya Pradesh in the same year to give greater political power and autonomy to tribal communities.
  • The North-East has seen long-standing ethnic-based insurgencies, with groups like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) and the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) seeking autonomy or independence for their respective ethnic groups.
  • In Mizoram, the Mizo National Front (MNF), led by Laldenga, initially sought independence for the Mizo people, but a peace accord in 1986 granted Mizoram full statehood and significant autonomy under Article 371G.
• Role of resource exploitation in tribal regionalism
  • One of the driving factors behind tribal regionalism has been the exploitation of natural resources in tribal areas without adequate compensation or development. States like Jharkhand, which are rich in minerals like coal and iron ore, have seen their resources extracted for the benefit of industrialized states, while tribal communities continue to live in poverty.

Language and regionalism

• Language shaping regional identity
  • Language has been one of the most significant factors in the development of regionalism in India. The linguistic reorganization of states in 1956, following the recommendations of the States Reorganization Commission, divided states along linguistic lines, giving rise to strong regional identities based on language.
  • In Tamil Nadu, the resistance to the imposition of Hindi as a national language led to widespread protests in the 1960s, which solidified Tamil identity as a cornerstone of regional politics. The DMK used linguistic identity as a key part of its political platform, advocating for Tamil pride and opposing Hindi hegemony.
  • In Maharashtra, the demand for a Marathi-speaking state led to the creation of Maharashtra in 1960. The Shiv Sena, founded in 1966 by Bal Thackeray, built its political platform on the idea of Marathi identity and sought to protect the rights of Marathi-speaking people against perceived economic and cultural threats from non-Marathi migrants.
  • In West Bengal, language continues to play an important role in shaping regional identity, with Bengali literature, art, and culture forming a crucial part of the state’s political discourse.

Role of culture and tradition in regionalism

• Culture and tradition fueling regional pride
  • Festivals, art, literature, and folk traditions have long been symbols of regional pride and identity in India. Cultural autonomy is often intertwined with demands for greater political and economic autonomy.
  • In Kerala, the Onam festival and Kathakali dance are seen as expressions of Malayali identity, while in Punjab, the Baisakhi festival serves as a symbol of Sikh pride and regional autonomy.
  • Literature also plays a critical role in regionalism, with works like Thirukkural in Tamil Nadu or Rabindranath Tagore’s writings in Bengal fostering a sense of regional identity and pride. These cultural markers not only strengthen regional identity but also fuel demands for political and economic autonomy.

Aspect	Caste Regionalism	Ethnic Regionalism
Political Mobilization	Based on caste identity	Focus on ethnic autonomy
Socio-economic Demands	Land reform, reservations	Protection of land, resources
Success Rates	Strong in Tamil Nadu, UP, Bihar	Seen in Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, NE India

IX. Government response to regionalism

Centralized vs decentralized policies

• Centralized governance approach
  • Centralized policies have been a key feature of various governments’ attempts to manage regional aspirations, particularly through the consolidation of power in the Union government.
  • In the early years of post-independence India, the Congress government, under Jawaharlal Nehru, favored a centralized governance model, focusing on national unity and preventing the fragmentation of the country. This often led to tension between regional aspirations and the central government, as local demands for autonomy were subordinated to national priorities.
  • In contrast, decentralization policies emerged during periods when the government sought to address the growing influence of regional political parties, such as the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu and the Shiv Sena in Maharashtra.
  • Decentralization became more prominent with the rise of coalition governments in the 1990s, which depended on regional parties for survival and thus provided greater autonomy to states, allowing regional demands to be addressed more directly.
• Impact of decentralization
  • Decentralized policies, such as the introduction of the Panchayati Raj system in 1992 under the 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments, aimed at giving more power to local governments, significantly reducing tensions in some regions.
  • Decentralized governance allowed states like Kerala and West Bengal to develop local governance structures that better addressed their specific socio-economic issues, fostering regional growth and reducing the potential for conflict between the center and states.

Use of constitutional provisions

• Article 356 (President’s Rule)
  • Article 356 of the Indian Constitution empowers the central government to impose President’s Rule in a state when the state government is deemed to be unable to function according to constitutional norms.
  • This provision has often been used to suppress regional demands or remove state governments that the center perceives as a threat to national unity.
  • A prominent example is the use of President’s Rule in Punjab during the Khalistan movement in the 1980s, when the central government dissolved the state legislature to regain control and quell separatist tendencies.
• Article 3 (Reorganization of States)
  • Article 3 allows the central government to reorganize states and change their boundaries. This provision has been used to address regional demands for statehood, such as the creation of Telangana in 2014, carved out of Andhra Pradesh.
  • The process of state reorganization began with the States Reorganization Act of 1956, which was based on linguistic identities. Article 3 played a crucial role in the peaceful redrawing of state boundaries to address regional aspirations and reduce ethnic and linguistic tensions.

Role of commissions and committees

• State Reorganization Commission (SRC)
  • The State Reorganization Commission (SRC) was established in 1953 to examine the demand for the reorganization of states based on linguistic lines. Its recommendations, particularly the States Reorganization Act of 1956, led to the creation of states like Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, and Karnataka, reducing regional tensions and addressing linguistic identities.
  • However, the SRC’s decisions were not without controversy, as it failed to address all regional demands, leading to ongoing regional movements, particularly in the North-East.
• Sarkaria Commission
  • The Sarkaria Commission (1983), set up to review the center-state relations, emphasized the importance of cooperative federalism and recommended strengthening the powers of states to manage their own affairs.
  • The commission’s recommendations, such as promoting decentralized governance and resolving conflicts between the center and states through dialogue, helped mitigate regional tensions in the 1980s.
• Punchhi Commission
  • The Punchhi Commission (2007) was tasked with further reviewing center-state relations. It focused on improving fiscal federalism, enhancing state autonomy, and resolving issues related to President’s Rule.
  • The commission’s recommendations addressed concerns raised by regional movements about the central government’s overreach and suggested reforms that would strengthen state autonomy and reduce regional imbalances.

Center-state relations and regionalism

• Congress governments’ approach
  • Historically, Congress governments under leaders like Indira Gandhi favored a centralized approach to managing regional demands. The frequent imposition of President’s Rule and the curbing of state autonomy led to tensions with regional leaders and movements.
  • However, during the tenure of Rajiv Gandhi, efforts were made to improve center-state relations through the Panchayati Raj reforms, which decentralized governance and promoted local development.
• BJP’s handling of state demands
  • The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), under Atal Bihari Vajpayee in the late 1990s and early 2000s, adopted a more conciliatory approach to managing regional demands, forming alliances with regional parties like the Akali Dal in Punjab and the Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh.
  • The Narendra Modi government has focused on promoting cooperative federalism through programs like NITI Aayog, which replaced the Planning Commission in 2015, to enhance cooperation between the center and states.
• Coalition governments’ approach
  • The rise of coalition governments in the 1990s, particularly under the United Front and later the National Democratic Alliance (NDA), saw regional parties gaining significant power in shaping national policies. These governments, reliant on regional party support, allowed for greater state autonomy and negotiated regional demands more effectively.

Addressing regional imbalances

• Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS)
  • Centrally Sponsored Schemes (CSS) are initiatives funded by the central government to address regional imbalances by providing financial assistance for development programs in underdeveloped areas.
  • Programs like MGNREGA (Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act), launched in 2005, aim to reduce poverty and create employment opportunities in backward regions, particularly in Bihar, Odisha, and the North-East.
• National Development Council (NDC)
  • The National Development Council (NDC), established in 1952, plays a key role in coordinating the development efforts of the central and state governments. Its goal is to ensure balanced regional development by approving national plans and monitoring their implementation in different states.
  • The NDC works closely with states to address disparities in infrastructure, health, and education, ensuring that backward regions receive the resources they need to catch up with more developed states.
• Reducing regional inequality through fiscal measures
  • The Finance Commission, through its recommendations, ensures that poorer states receive a larger share of tax revenues to address regional disparities. States like Bihar and Uttar Pradesh have benefited from higher allocations under this system.
  • The introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) in 2017 further aimed at reducing regional imbalances by creating a uniform tax structure, although debates continue over how effectively it addresses the specific needs of different states.

X. Future of regionalism and regional inequality

Globalization and its impact on regionalism

• Impact of globalization on regional inequality
  • Globalization has accelerated since the 1990s, bringing increased global connectivity, opening new markets, and fostering international trade. However, the benefits of globalization have not been equally distributed across Indian regions.
  • Urban centers like Mumbai, Bangalore, and Chennai have become hubs for global industries, information technology, and services sectors, while rural and underdeveloped regions like Bihar, Jharkhand, and parts of the North-East have struggled to attract global investment.
  • Globalization could exacerbate regional inequality by concentrating wealth and development in already prosperous regions, while economically backward states may face increased marginalization without targeted policies.
• Possible mitigation strategies
  • To mitigate these disparities, the government could adopt inclusive policies to attract foreign direct investment (FDI) in underdeveloped regions, enhance infrastructure, and create special economic zones (SEZs) specifically for lagging areas.
  • Skill development programs, incentives for businesses to move to rural areas, and investments in infrastructure could help bridge the growing gap between globalized urban centers and rural peripheries.

The role of technology in addressing regional disparities

• E-governance as a solution
  • E-governance can play a significant role in reducing regional inequalities by improving access to government services, particularly in rural and underdeveloped areas. The implementation of digital platforms for delivering healthcare, education, and financial services can reduce the need for physical infrastructure in remote regions.
  • The Digital India initiative, launched in 2015, has aimed to expand internet access to rural areas, promote online governance, and reduce the digital divide. Increased mobile penetration has helped rural communities access banking, insurance, and government schemes more easily, reducing administrative inefficiencies.
• Digital economy and smart cities
  • The digital economy holds immense potential to transform underdeveloped regions by promoting e-commerce, online education, and telemedicine. This reduces the dependency on physical infrastructure and creates new opportunities for employment and entrepreneurship.
  • Smart city projects, such as the Smart Cities Mission launched in 2015, aim to develop 100 cities across India with smart infrastructure and e-governance solutions. However, for these projects to be successful in mitigating regional imbalances, efforts need to focus on smaller towns and cities in underdeveloped states, ensuring that smart infrastructure reaches beyond major urban centers.
• Technological limitations and challenges
  • Despite advancements in technology, rural regions often face challenges such as poor internet connectivity, lack of digital literacy, and limited access to devices. Bridging this gap requires more robust infrastructure development in rural and tribal areas.

Balancing regional autonomy with national integrity

• Federal reforms for greater state autonomy
  • The future of regionalism in India may require federal reforms to provide greater state autonomy, especially concerning fiscal decentralization and resource management. States are increasingly demanding more control over revenue sharing, land use, and policy-making to address their unique socio-economic challenges.
  • Proposals for future reforms include increasing the states’ share in central taxes, granting more control over natural resources, and allowing greater flexibility in implementing central schemes to suit local needs. These reforms would ensure that states can effectively address their unique challenges without undermining national unity.
• Maintaining national integrity
  • At the same time, maintaining national integrity is critical. The Indian Constitution‘s quasi-federal structure has ensured a balance between centralized power and regional autonomy. Future reforms should preserve this balance by preventing states from pursuing policies that may threaten national cohesion while still granting them enough autonomy to meet local demands.

The future of regional political parties

• Evolving role of regional parties
  • Regional political parties, which have played a critical role in shaping Indian politics, are likely to continue influencing coalition governments and policy-making at the national level. Their importance is particularly notable in states where regionalism is driven by distinct linguistic, ethnic, or cultural identities.
  • As national parties like the BJP and Congress compete for dominance, regional parties like the Trinamool Congress (TMC) in West Bengal, DMK in Tamil Nadu, and Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) will continue to leverage their influence to secure greater economic benefits and autonomy for their states.
• Shifting dynamics in national politics
  • As regional parties adapt to changing political landscapes, they may form more coalitions with national parties, or even with each other, to push for regional demands at the center.
  • However, the rising dominance of national parties with broader appeal, such as the BJP, may challenge the strength of regional parties, especially in states where regional identity politics no longer resonates as strongly with voters.

Addressing regional inequality

• Policy recommendations for future governments
  • Future governments should focus on comprehensive policies that address economic, social, and political imbalances between regions. Incentives for private sector investments in underdeveloped regions, along with targeted infrastructure development, will be essential to reducing disparities.
  • Special emphasis should be placed on enhancing rural infrastructure—building roads, schools, hospitals, and digital connectivity in backward areas to ensure they can participate in national growth. Social sector spending should be increased in healthcare and education, particularly in regions with low human development indices (HDI).
  • Policies should also include specific measures for tribal areas in states like Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh, where resource exploitation has not benefited local populations. Empowering local governance through Panchayati Raj institutions could help address the unique needs of tribal and backward regions.
• Reducing inter-regional economic gaps
  • Fiscal measures, including more equitable distribution of central funds, should be implemented to ensure that poorer states like Bihar and Odisha receive adequate resources. The central government should also focus on improving state governance capacity to ensure effective utilization of allocated resources.
  • Public-private partnerships (PPP) could be encouraged in sectors like infrastructure development, education, and healthcare, specifically targeted at underdeveloped regions to spur growth and development.

1. Examine how centralized economic planning post-independence exacerbated regional inequalities in India. Discuss the role of Five-Year Plans in deepening regional economic disparities. (250 words)
2. Analyze the impact of regional political parties on India’s federal structure. How have these parties influenced center-state relations and national politics? (250 words)
3. How did the liberalization of India’s economy in 1991 affect regional inequalities? Evaluate the role of economic hubs and backward states in the post-liberalization era. (250 words)