17.3 French revolution and aftermath (1789-1815)

I – The Old Regime and Pre-Revolutionary Crises

Social Stratification

• Nobility
  • Held hereditary privileges and dominated military and administrative positions.
  • Owned vast estates but paid minimal taxes, benefiting from feudal dues collected from peasants.
  • Divided into nobles of the sword (military elite) and nobles of the robe (judicial and administrative offices).
  • Opposed reforms that threatened their traditional privileges.
• Clergy
  • Controlled 10% of land in France under the First Estate but contributed only a voluntary don gratuit (free gift) instead of taxes.
  • Higher clergy (bishops, abbots) drawn from nobility, enjoying lavish lifestyles, while lower clergy (parish priests) lived modestly.
  • Exercised tithing system, where peasants contributed 10% of produce to the Church.
  • Faced criticism due to moral corruption, increasing Enlightenment influence, and resentment against ecclesiastical courts.
• Bourgeoisie
  • Emerging middle class that included merchants, financiers, professionals (lawyers, doctors).
  • Controlled a significant share of France’s wealth and trade but lacked political representation.
  • Influenced by Enlightenment ideals like meritocracy, free trade, and constitutional government.
  • Led opposition to feudal privileges and sought equal taxation, representation in government, and economic liberalization.
• Peasants
  • Formed over 80% of the population, yet bore the heaviest tax burden.
  • Subject to corvée (forced labor), feudal dues, and indirect taxes on essentials like salt (gabelle) and bread.
  • Lacked access to land ownership, leading to chronic poverty and food insecurity.
  • Engaged in sporadic revolts against tax collectors and landlords, setting the stage for mass uprisings in 1789.

Fiscal Distress

• Taxation Structure and Exemptions
  • The tax burden fell primarily on Third Estate, while nobility and clergy were largely exempt.
  • Key taxes included taille (land tax), capitation (head tax), and vingtième (income tax), disproportionately affecting commoners.
  • Nobles and clergy secured exemptions through venality of office, paying one-time fees for permanent tax immunity.
  • Widespread tax evasion and corruption further weakened state revenue.
• Rising Public Debt
  • France’s national debt surged due to wars, including the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763) and American Revolution (1775–1783).
  • Loans from financiers led to spiraling interest payments, consuming over 50% of state revenue by the 1780s.
  • Efforts to reform taxation, led by Turgot (1774–1776), Necker (1776–1781), Calonne (1783–1787), and Brienne (1787–1788), faced resistance from Parlements and privileged estates.
• Burden on Peasantry
  • Peasants paid direct taxes to the Crown, indirect taxes on goods, tithes to the Church, and feudal dues to landlords.
  • The capitation (poll tax) and gabelle (salt tax) disproportionately affected rural poor.
  • Failed harvests in 1788–1789 worsened economic conditions, fueling food riots and discontent.

Economic Strains

• Feudal Dues and Rural Exploitation
  • Peasants were forced to pay feudal rents, perform corvée labor, and use noble-owned mills, ovens, and winepresses for a fee.
  • Manorial courts enforced traditional feudal obligations, deepening resentment.
• Inflation and Price Rise
  • Bread prices soared due to poor harvests in 1788, with wheat production declining by 20%.
  • Inflation reduced real wages, affecting urban workers and artisans.
  • Speculation and hoarding by grain merchants exacerbated shortages.
• Impact on Urban Workers
  • Guild restrictions limited economic mobility for craftsmen and traders.
  • High unemployment in Paris and other cities due to declining demand and manufacturing slowdowns.
  • Sans-culottes (urban working-class) emerged as a radical political force advocating for economic justice.

Administrative Complexities

• Fragmented Governance
  • France had overlapping administrative structures, leading to bureaucratic inefficiency.
  • 13 Parlements (high courts) wielded judicial and political power, often obstructing royal edicts.
  • Multiple tax systems, including indirect taxes collected by private tax farmers (fermiers généraux), fostered corruption.
• Corruption and Inefficiency in Tax Farming
  • Fermiers généraux (tax farmers) pocketed a significant portion of state revenue, leading to widespread graft.
  • Intendants (royal administrators) had limited power due to resistance from local elites.
  • Internal customs barriers disrupted trade and commerce, increasing regional disparities.

Contrasts in Monarchical Power vs. Feudal Vestiges

• Absolute Authority vs. Noble Resistance
  • Louis XVI (r. 1774–1792) theoretically held absolute power, but his authority was limited by entrenched feudal interests.
  • Parlements claimed the right to register and challenge royal decrees, often blocking reforms.
  • Royal attempts to impose fiscal reforms (1774–1789) failed due to resistance from the Assembly of Notables (1787) and Estates-General (1789).
• Enlightenment Critique of Feudalism
  • Voltaire attacked clerical privileges and judicial corruption.
  • Montesquieu’s ‘The Spirit of Laws’ (1748) advocated for separation of powers, contradicting absolutism.
  • Rousseau’s ‘The Social Contract’ (1762) challenged feudal hierarchy, advocating for popular sovereignty.
  • Physiocrats (Quesnay, Turgot) promoted free-market principles, opposing feudal land tenure systems.

[Comparison: Monarchical Power vs. Feudal Vestiges]

II – Enlightenment ideals and the critique of absolutism

Philosophical Underpinnings

• Montesquieu’s Separation of Powers
  • Introduced in The Spirit of Laws (1748).
  • Advocated division of government into three branches:
    • Legislative: Makes laws.
    • Executive: Enforces laws.
    • Judicial: Interprets laws.
  • Opposed absolute monarchy, arguing that unchecked power leads to tyranny.
  • Inspired constitutional frameworks in multiple nations, including United States, France (1791 Constitution), and later India (Government of India Act 1935, Indian Constitution 1950).
• Rousseau’s General Will
  • Central theme in The Social Contract (1762).
  • Advocated popular sovereignty, where laws reflect collective interest rather than individual desires.
  • Differentiated between:
    • General Will: The common good of society.
    • Will of All: Sum of individual interests, which may be misguided.
  • Argued that a legitimate government derives authority from its people, influencing the French Revolution (1789) and democratic movements globally.
• Voltaire’s Call for Tolerance
  • Criticized religious persecution in Treatise on Tolerance (1763).
  • Opposed clergy’s power and institutionalized dogma, favoring freedom of speech and religious diversity.
  • His defense of Jean Calas (a Protestant wrongly executed in 1762) exposed judicial bias in religious cases.
  • Advocated constitutional monarchy over absolute rule, favoring reforms rather than revolution.

Influence of Salons

• Intellectual Exchange and Debate
  • Salons served as informal academies where intellectuals, writers, and political figures debated ideas.
  • Hosted discussions on philosophy, politics, economy, and arts, accelerating Enlightenment discourse.
  • Allowed philosophes (French intellectuals) to refine and popularize ideas critical of monarchy and church.
• Role of Women as Hosts
  • Women played a crucial role in fostering intellectual networks.
  • Notable salonnières:
    • Madame Geoffrin: Supported philosophers like Diderot and Rousseau.
    • Madame de Staël: Criticized Napoleonic despotism, influenced European Romanticism.
    • Emilie du Châtelet: Translated and expanded Newton’s works, bridging scientific and philosophical thought.
• Cross-Pollination of Radical Ideas
  • Salons connected Enlightenment thinkers, revolutionaries, and reformers.
  • Spread ideas challenging feudal privileges, religious orthodoxy, and monarchic absolutism.
  • Encouraged development of constitutionalism and human rights discourse.

Anti-Feudal Discourse

• Reason vs. Tradition
  • Enlightenment thinkers promoted rational inquiry over inherited customs.
  • Attacked divine right monarchy, advocating for empirical governance based on natural laws.
  • Rejected aristocratic birthright as the basis for leadership, favoring meritocracy.
• Emphasis on Natural Rights
  • Inspired by John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government (1689).
  • Advocated for life, liberty, and property as inalienable rights.
  • Justified revolt against oppressive rule, influencing French and American Revolutions.
  • Reflected in 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen.
• Questioning Hierarchical Privilege
  • Challenged the estates system, where clergy and nobility held power over commoners.
  • Criticized feudal dues, forced labor (corvée), and serfdom.
  • Demanded equal legal and political rights for all citizens.
  • Laid ideological groundwork for Abolition of Feudalism (August 4, 1789).

Spread of Pamphlets

• Public Opinion Shaping
  • Political pamphlets became a powerful medium of revolutionary agitation.
  • Distributed among bourgeoisie, artisans, and urban workers, increasing political awareness.
  • Influential pamphlets included:
    • What is the Third Estate? (1789) by Abbé Sieyès: Defined the Third Estate as the true nation.
    • The Rights of Man (1791) by Thomas Paine: Defended popular revolution against tyranny.
    • Common Sense (1776) by Thomas Paine: Advocated American independence from Britain, later influencing French revolutionary discourse.
• Censorship and Clandestine Circulation
  • Royal decrees restricted press freedom, but pamphlets circulated secretly.
  • Printing presses in Paris, Lyon, and Bordeaux operated clandestinely.
  • Smuggled through underground networks, bypassing government surveillance.
  • Masonic lodges and coffeehouses served as hubs for spreading anti-monarchical literature.

Comparing Old Conservative Ideology vs. New Rationalist Currents

III – The Estates-General and the Tennis Court Oath

Convocation of the Estates-General

• Representation of Three Estates
  • Estates-General was the traditional French assembly, convened after a 175-year gap in 1789.
  • Included three estates:
    • First Estate: Clergy, controlled 10% of land, but paid no taxes.
    • Second Estate: Nobility, comprised 1.5% of the population, held feudal privileges.
    • Third Estate: Commoners, included bourgeoisie, artisans, peasants, formed 97% of the population.
  • Each estate had one collective vote, favoring clergy and nobility over commoners.
• Voting Controversies
  • Clergy and nobility insisted on voting by estate, ensuring their dominance.
  • The Third Estate demanded voting by head, arguing population-based representation.
  • King Louis XVI favored the privileged orders, refusing changes.
• Cahiers de Doléances (Grievance Notebooks)
  • Compiled by all estates to present grievances and reforms.
  • First Estate sought church privileges, while the Second Estate opposed increased taxation.
  • The Third Estate demanded tax equity, end of feudal dues, and political participation.

Demands for Reform

• Fiscal Equity
  • The Third Estate demanded uniform taxation, ending noble and clerical exemptions.
  • Called for abolition of tax farming, which enriched Fermiers Généraux (tax farmers).
• Abolition of Feudal Privileges
  • Demanded end of seigneurial dues, feudal courts, and corvée labor.
  • Opposed exclusive hunting rights for nobility, which harmed peasant agriculture.
  • Rejected guild restrictions that hindered economic mobility.
• Constitutional Limitations on Monarchy
  • Sought separation of powers, restricting arbitrary royal decrees.
  • Demanded regular Estates-General meetings to ensure checks on monarchy.
  • Proposed civil liberties, including freedom of speech and press.

Formation of the National Assembly

• Assertion of Popular Sovereignty
  • The Third Estate declared itself the National Assembly on June 17, 1789.
  • Asserted that political power belonged to the nation, not the king.
  • Invited members of First and Second Estates to join, some liberal clergy and nobles accepted.
• Denial of Royal Instructions
  • King Louis XVI ordered them to dissolve, but they refused.
  • Declared that no taxes would be levied without their approval.
  • Tensions increased, leading to physical expulsion from meeting halls.
• Empowerment of the Third Estate
  • Third Estate met in a tennis court after expulsion from Versailles on June 20, 1789.
  • Marked the beginning of organized defiance against the monarchy.

Tennis Court Oath

• Symbolic Unity of the Third Estate
  • Delegates vowed to remain together until they drafted a new constitution.
  • Represented the first formal opposition to the king’s authority.
  • Inspired wider revolutionary fervor in France.
• Pledge Not to Separate Until Constitution Drafted
  • Members committed to defending national sovereignty against absolutism.
  • Highlighted the belief that government legitimacy came from the people.
  • Attracted moderate nobles and clergy, leading to the gradual collapse of feudal power.
• Challenge to Royal Authority
  • Louis XVI attempted to suppress the movement, but lacked military support.
  • June 27, 1789: King reluctantly ordered First and Second Estates to join the National Assembly.
  • Marked the end of Estates-General, replacing it with constitutional governance.

Contrasting Aristocratic vs. Bourgeois Approaches to Reform

IV – Storming the Bastille and the Great Fear

Bastille as a Symbol

• Fortress-Prison of Monarchy
  • The Bastille, originally built in 1370, served as a royal fortress and prison in Paris.
  • It housed political prisoners, critics of the monarchy, and those imprisoned by lettres de cachet (sealed royal orders).
  • Became a symbol of royal oppression, representing the king’s arbitrary justice and unchecked authority.
• Tyranny of the Crown
  • Under King Louis XVI, the Bastille embodied the monarchical autocracy, where individuals could be imprisoned without trial or appeal.
  • The Enlightenment thinkers, particularly Voltaire and Rousseau, criticized the use of such institutions to suppress dissent.
• Popular Anger and Revolutionary Sentiment
  • The rising bread prices and food shortages of 1788–1789 created deep resentment against the monarchy.
  • The dismissal of Jacques Necker (11 July 1789), a popular finance minister, fueled suspicions of a royal coup against the Third Estate.
  • Rumors spread that the king planned to dissolve the National Assembly and use force against revolutionaries.
  • The Bastille, being a visible stronghold of royal authority in Paris, became the target of popular rage.

Popular Insurrection

• Formation of Militias
  • On July 13, 1789, Parisians formed armed militias to defend against an expected royalist crackdown.
  • These militias were composed of artisans, merchants, and common workers, frustrated with the economic crisis and government inaction.
• Role of the National Guard and Lafayette
  • Marquis de Lafayette, a French nobleman and a veteran of the American Revolution (1775–1783), took command of the newly formed National Guard.
  • The National Guard was created to protect revolutionary ideals and maintain order, countering both royalist troops and uncontrolled mob violence.
  • The militia adopted the tricolor cockade (blue, white, and red), which later became the French national flag.
• Arms Seizure and Attack on Bastille
  • On July 14, 1789, armed revolutionaries stormed the Hôtel des Invalides, seizing 32,000 muskets but finding no gunpowder.
  • To obtain gunpowder, the crowd moved toward the Bastille, which was guarded by 82 invalides (retired soldiers) and 32 Swiss mercenaries.
  • After failed negotiations with Governor Bernard-René de Launay, the mob attacked with cannons and eventually breached the gates.
  • De Launay was captured and executed, with his head paraded on a pike through Paris.

Spread of Peasant Revolts: The Great Fear

• Fear of Aristocratic Counterattack
  • The storming of the Bastille inspired peasant uprisings across France, as rumors spread of noble plots to suppress the revolution.
  • Many peasants believed that nobles were hiring brigands (armed bands) to destroy crops and punish villages supporting the revolution.
• Destruction of Manorial Records
  • Peasants targeted châteaux (noble estates), burning feudal contracts and manorial records that documented their obligations and dues.
  • By destroying land ownership records, they aimed to end feudal dues and escape the burdens of seigneurial obligations.
• Violence in Rural Areas
  • The revolts saw attacks on aristocratic mansions, monasteries, and clerical estates, with many nobles fleeing France (émigrés).
  • In some regions, peasants formed local militias to defend against feudal lords and prevent retaliatory attacks.
  • The uprisings forced the National Assembly to take immediate action against feudalism.

Abolition of Feudalism: The Night of August 4

• Radical Decisions by the National Assembly
  • On the night of August 4, 1789, the National Assembly convened to address rural unrest and the demands of the Third Estate.
  • In a historic moment, nobles voluntarily renounced their feudal privileges, signaling the end of feudalism in France.
• Repudiation of Seigneurial Dues
  • Feudal dues, tithes, and exclusive hunting rights were abolished.
  • Manorial courts, which had jurisdiction over peasants, were eliminated, ensuring equal justice for all social classes.
  • Forced labor (corvée) and tax exemptions for nobles and clergy were revoked.
• End of Aristocratic Privilege
  • The feudal system, which had structured French society for centuries, was dismantled in a single night.
  • These reforms laid the foundation for the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen (26 August 1789), which formally established equal rights and liberties for all citizens.

Comparing Urban and Rural Revolutionary Tactics

V – Constitutional monarchy and legislative assembly

Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen

• Individual Liberties
  • Proclaimed on August 26, 1789, by the National Assembly, establishing fundamental human rights.
  • Stated that “Men are born and remain free and equal in rights,” emphasizing freedom of speech, press, and religion.
  • Inspired by Enlightenment ideas, particularly those of John Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau.
  • Outlawed arbitrary imprisonment, abolishing the monarchy’s power to detain individuals without trial.
• Equality Before Law
  • Established legal equality for all citizens, dismantling the noble privileges of the Old Regime.
  • Introduced meritocracy in employment, ensuring public offices were accessible to all, based on ability, not birth.
  • Guaranteed uniform justice, ending the multiple feudal and ecclesiastical legal systems.
  • Promoted property rights, securing individuals’ freedom to own and dispose of land.
• Sovereignty of the Nation
  • Declared popular sovereignty, meaning law derives from the general will of the people, not divine right.
  • Affirmed citizen participation in governance, laying the foundation for representative democracy.
  • Introduced the concept of separation of powers, ensuring checks and balances in government.
  • Influenced later democratic movements, including the Indian independence movement and the Indian Constitution (1950).

Civil Constitution of the Clergy

• Church Property Nationalization
  • Enacted on July 12, 1790, by the National Assembly, targeting Church wealth and influence.
  • Confiscated Church lands (approximately 10% of total land in France) to resolve state debt.
  • Issued assignats (paper currency backed by seized Church lands), leading to inflation and economic instability.
• Oath Requirement for Clergy
  • Required all bishops and priests to swear allegiance to the Constitution.
  • Created two factions within the clergy:
    • Juring Clergy: Supported reforms and took the oath.
    • Refractory Clergy: Refused the oath and opposed state intervention.
  • The Pope condemned the oath in 1791, intensifying the divide between revolutionaries and the Catholic Church.
• Clerical Resistance and Public Backlash
  • Many rural peasants remained loyal to the Catholic Church, viewing the law as a direct attack on their faith.
  • Sparked counter-revolutionary movements, particularly in the Vendée region (1793–1796), where peasants revolted against the Revolutionary government.
  • Increased hostility between radicals and conservatives, contributing to future political turmoil.

Emergence of Political Clubs

• Jacobins
  • Founded in 1789, initially as a moderate reformist group, later becoming the most radical revolutionary faction.
  • Advocated for a republic over a constitutional monarchy, influenced by Rousseau’s idea of direct democracy.
  • Key leaders included Maximilien Robespierre, Georges Danton, and Jean-Paul Marat.
  • Supported state control over the economy, radical social reforms, and use of revolutionary terror.
• Girondins
  • More moderate revolutionaries, supported constitutional monarchy before advocating for a liberal republic.
  • Emphasized individual freedoms, economic liberalism, and opposition to centralized power.
  • Opposed radical violence and feared the rise of mob rule.
  • Leaders included Jacques-Pierre Brissot and Madame Roland.
• Cordeliers
  • Founded in 1790, more radical than the Jacobins, advocated for direct democracy and people’s rights.
  • Demanded universal male suffrage, opposition to monarchy, and protection of lower-class interests.
  • Prominent leaders included Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins.
  • Played a key role in organizing street protests and revolutionary demonstrations.
• Influence on Legislative Process
  • Political clubs shaped debates in the Legislative Assembly (1791–1792), influencing major policy decisions.
  • The Jacobins pushed for war against Austria in 1792, aiming to spread revolutionary ideals.
  • The Girondins sought to balance revolutionary ideals with stability, fearing radical excesses.
  • The Cordeliers pressured for greater direct participation, leading to mass mobilizations and protests.

Legislative Reforms

• Reorganization of France into Departments
  • In 1790, France was divided into 83 departments, replacing the historical provinces.
  • Departments had locally elected councils, promoting administrative decentralization.
  • Ended feudal regional divisions, ensuring uniform governance.
• Universal Taxation
  • Abolished the privileges of the clergy and nobility, enforcing equal taxation for all.
  • Introduced direct taxes on land and income, replacing the unjust feudal system.
  • Encouraged commercial growth, removing internal customs barriers and guild restrictions.
• Limitations on Royal Veto
  • The 1791 Constitution granted Louis XVI a suspensive veto, meaning he could delay laws but not reject them permanently.
  • Revolutionaries feared the king would use the veto to block essential reforms.
  • After mass protests in 1792, this royal privilege was revoked, leading to the king’s diminishing authority.

Contrasts in Moderate vs. Radical Visions of Governance

VI – The radical turn and the republic

Flight to Varennes

• Discrediting of the King
  • On June 20–21, 1791, King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette attempted to flee Paris in disguise.
  • The royal family planned to reach Montmédy, where loyalist forces could assist in restoring absolute rule.
  • Recognized at Varennes by a local postmaster and captured by National Guardsmen.
  • The failed escape exposed Louis XVI’s opposition to the revolution, leading to widespread disillusionment.
• Popular Distrust
  • Many moderate revolutionaries had still supported a constitutional monarchy, but the king’s flight eroded any remaining trust.
  • Revolutionary newspapers and pamphlets portrayed Louis XVI as a traitor to the nation.
  • Political clubs like the Jacobins and Cordeliers demanded an end to monarchy, intensifying public resentment.
• Galvanizing Republican Sentiment
  • Protests at the Champ de Mars (July 17, 1791) called for abolition of monarchy, but were violently suppressed by the National Guard under Lafayette.
  • The Jacobins gained influence, advocating for a radical break from monarchy.
  • Set the stage for the eventual declaration of a republic in 1792.

War with Austria and Prussia

• Patriotic Fervor and Revolutionary Expansion
  • The Legislative Assembly declared war on Austria on April 20, 1792, believing foreign powers aimed to crush the revolution.
  • Prussia joined Austria, forming the First Coalition against France.
  • The war rallied nationalistic sentiments, with citizens called to defend the republic from external threats.
  • Revolutionary leaders viewed war as a means to spread revolutionary ideals across Europe.
• Pressure on Revolutionaries
  • Early defeats at Verdun and Longwy in 1792 created panic in Paris.
  • Brunswick Manifesto (July 25, 1792), issued by the Duke of Brunswick, threatened destruction of Paris if the royal family was harmed.
  • Instead of intimidating revolutionaries, it fueled radicalism, leading to violent reprisals against perceived enemies of the revolution.
• Conscription and National Defense
  • On August 23, 1793, the National Convention introduced the levée en masse (mass conscription), drafting all able-bodied men between ages 18–25.
  • Established the first modern citizen army, creating a force of over 800,000 soldiers by 1794.
  • Women and children were mobilized, producing weapons, uniforms, and propaganda.
  • The French army’s victory at Valmy (September 20, 1792) boosted morale and secured the revolution’s survival.

September Massacres

• Fear of Counter-Revolutionary Conspiracies
  • With Prussian forces approaching Paris, panic spread about royalist uprisings from within.
  • Counter-revolutionary clergy, nobles, and suspected enemies of the revolution were imprisoned.
  • Revolutionary leaders, particularly Jean-Paul Marat, incited fears of internal betrayal.
• Mob Justice and Prison Massacres
  • Between September 2–6, 1792, revolutionary mobs stormed Parisian prisons, executing between 1,200–1,400 inmates.
  • Many priests, aristocrats, and political prisoners were murdered without trial.
  • The National Assembly did little to intervene, implicitly condoning the violence.
• Radicalization of Paris
  • The massacres deepened divisions between moderate and radical revolutionaries.
  • The Girondins condemned the violence, while the Jacobins defended it as necessary for revolutionary justice.
  • Strengthened Parisian sans-culottes (radical working-class revolutionaries), who demanded harsh measures against counter-revolutionaries.

Proclamation of the Republic

• Abolition of Monarchy
  • On September 21, 1792, the National Convention officially abolished the monarchy, declaring France a republic.
  • The royal family was stripped of all titles, and Louis XVI was referred to as “Citizen Louis Capet”.
  • Marked the formal end of France’s absolute monarchy, replacing it with a radical republican government.
• Trial and Execution of Louis XVI
  • Louis XVI was charged with treason, accused of collaborating with foreign powers against the revolution.
  • Tried by the National Convention and sentenced to death on January 21, 1793.
  • Executed by guillotine in the Place de la Révolution, sparking international outrage.
  • Marie Antoinette was executed on October 16, 1793, further cementing the revolution’s radical shift.
• Ideological Justification for Regicide
  • The Jacobins argued that Louis XVI’s existence endangered the republic, as monarchists could attempt his restoration.
  • Inspired by Rousseau’s idea of the general will, claiming the people’s collective sovereignty required eliminating tyranny.
  • The execution intensified revolutionary fervor, leading to the Reign of Terror.

Comparisons of Girondins vs. Montagnards

VII – The reign of terror and the Committee of Public Safety

Rise of Robespierre

• Justification of Terror
  • Maximilien Robespierre, a leader of the Jacobins, emerged as the dominant figure in the National Convention by 1793.
  • Advocated for the use of terror as a legitimate tool to protect the revolution and eliminate counter-revolutionaries.
  • Justified his policies through Rousseau’s concept of the general will, arguing that virtue and terror were inseparable.
  • Famous speech before the National Convention (February 1794) stated that “Terror is nothing but prompt, severe, inflexible justice.”
• Cult of Virtue
  • Promoted civic morality based on Rousseau’s ideals, believing that a virtuous republic required strict moral discipline.
  • Associated revolutionary governance with public duty and civic responsibility, discouraging luxury, aristocratic traditions, and religious authority.
  • Established the Festival of the Supreme Being (June 8, 1794) as a state-sponsored deistic ceremony, replacing traditional Catholic rituals.
• Political Purges
  • Led purges within the National Convention, eliminating political rivals, moderates (Girondins), and even former allies.
  • Ordered the execution of Georges Danton (April 1794) and Camille Desmoulins, who opposed the excesses of terror.
  • Between September 1793 and July 1794, approximately 16,500 people were officially executed, and thousands more were imprisoned or killed extrajudicially.

Committee of Public Safety

• Centralized Authority
  • Established in April 1793 to safeguard the revolution against internal and external threats.
  • Comprised 12 members, dominated by Robespierre, Saint-Just, and Couthon.
  • Held dictatorial power, making decisions on war, law, economy, and internal security.
• Mass Mobilization
  • Implemented total war policies, requiring all citizens to contribute to national defense.
  • Levée en masse (August 1793) enforced mandatory conscription, raising an army of over one million soldiers, the largest in European history at the time.
  • Encouraged mass production of weapons, uniforms, and military supplies, fueling France’s victories against the First Coalition.
• Economic Controls (Maximum Laws)
  • Introduced the Law of the Maximum (September 1793) to control food prices, wages, and essential goods.
  • Enforced strict price caps on grain, bread, and fuel, targeting hoarders and black market profiteers.
  • Established harsh penalties, including execution, for violating economic laws, creating a climate of fear.

Dechristianization Campaigns

• Revolutionary Calendar
  • Introduced the French Republican Calendar (October 1793) to remove religious influence from daily life.
  • Replaced the Gregorian calendar with 10-day weeks, renamed months based on natural elements, and eliminated Sundays and Christian holidays.
  • Aimed to erase Catholic traditions and establish a secular time system.
• Closure of Churches
  • Between 1793–1794, churches were confiscated, repurposed, or destroyed as part of the anti-religious movement.
  • Notre-Dame Cathedral in Paris was converted into the Temple of Reason, symbolizing secular enlightenment.
  • Church bells were melted for cannons, and religious statues were removed from public spaces.
• Persecution of Clergy
  • Refractory clergy (those who refused to take the constitutional oath) were imprisoned, deported, or executed.
  • Thousands of priests and nuns were forced into exile, particularly to Spain, Italy, and the Americas.
  • Catholicism was banned from public practice, and mass ceremonies were outlawed.

Thermidorian Reaction

• Overthrow of Robespierre
  • On July 27, 1794 (9th Thermidor), Robespierre was arrested by his opponents in the National Convention.
  • Executed by guillotine on July 28, 1794, along with Saint-Just, Couthon, and 20 Jacobin allies.
  • Marked the end of the Reign of Terror and a shift towards moderate governance.
• Fear of Dictatorship
  • Many deputies feared Robespierre’s growing personal power and his increasing use of purges.
  • The execution of Danton and Desmoulins had alarmed both moderates and radicals.
  • Robespierre’s speech on July 26, 1794, hinting at new purges, triggered his downfall.
• Decline of Jacobin Influence
  • The Jacobin Club was shut down in November 1794, and many former Jacobins were imprisoned or exiled.
  • Political repression shifted towards radical revolutionaries, ending the most extreme phase of the revolution.
  • Paved the way for the rise of the Directory (1795–1799), a more conservative regime.

Contrasting Revolutionary Zeal vs. Terror as Policy

VIII – The Directory and the challenges of moderation

Post-Terror Governance

• Bicameral Legislature
  • The Constitution of 1795, also called the Constitution of Year III, established a bicameral legislative system to prevent concentration of power.
  • Created two chambers:
    • Council of Five Hundred: Proposed laws and held initiating legislative power.
    • Council of Ancients: Consisted of 250 members, approved or rejected legislation but could not propose laws.
  • Only male citizens with property qualifications could vote, restricting political participation to wealthy landowners.
• Executive Directory of Five
  • A five-member executive known as the Directory was established to enforce laws and oversee governance.
  • Chosen by the Council of Ancients from a list provided by the Council of Five Hundred.
  • Prevented dictatorship by dividing power among multiple individuals.
  • Key members included Paul Barras, Jean-François Rewbell, and Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès.
  • Lacked cohesion and effective leadership, leading to internal conflicts and inefficiency.
• Checks and Balances
  • Introduced separation of powers, ensuring legislative and executive branches remained independent.
  • Limited the influence of radicals and monarchists, preventing another Reign of Terror or monarchical restoration.
  • Relied heavily on the military, particularly on Napoleon Bonaparte, to maintain order and enforce policies.

Political Instability

• Royalist Resurgence
  • Monarchists sought to restore the Bourbon monarchy, gaining significant support from conservative factions.
  • The Coup of 18 Fructidor (September 4, 1797) led by Barras and Napoleon’s generals removed royalist deputies from the legislature.
  • Harsh laws exiled royalists and imposed press censorship, limiting monarchical propaganda.
• Jacobin Insurrections
  • Despite their decline after Robespierre’s execution, Jacobins attempted several uprisings against the Directory.
  • The Conspiracy of Equals (1796) led by Gracchus Babeuf sought to overthrow the government and establish a socialist republic.
  • Babeuf and his followers were arrested and executed in 1797, suppressing radical left-wing movements.
• Corrupt Practices
  • The Directory became infamous for corruption, with directors enriching themselves through bribes and favoritism.
  • Government contracts were distributed unfairly, and officials manipulated the economy for personal gain.
  • Widespread dissatisfaction emerged due to the Directory’s inability to address fundamental economic and political issues.
• Reliance on Military Power
  • The Directory increasingly relied on the military to quell uprisings and enforce authority.
  • Napoleon’s victories in Italy (1796–1797) strengthened the regime, allowing the Directory to suppress internal dissent.
  • However, growing military influence weakened civilian rule, paving the way for Napoleon’s rise to power.

Economic Difficulties

• Inflation and Financial Crisis
  • Assignats (paper currency introduced during the revolution) became worthless, leading to massive inflation.
  • Peasants and urban workers struggled to afford basic necessities, leading to widespread poverty and food shortages.
  • The Directory failed to stabilize currency, eroding public confidence in the government.
• Currency Reforms
  • The Directory replaced assignats with the franc in 1795, attempting to restore economic stability.
  • Introduced metal-based currency, reducing inflation but limiting money circulation.
  • Economic instability continued, affecting trade and commercial activities.
• Taxation Woes
  • The government relied heavily on indirect taxes, burdening common people while sparing elites.
  • Harsh tax collection measures led to resentment and resistance from rural populations.
  • Widespread tax evasion and corruption further weakened state revenues.
• Reliance on War Spoils
  • Military campaigns, particularly Napoleon’s conquests in Italy, funded government expenses.
  • Seized wealth from conquered territories, including gold, art, and agricultural goods, helped sustain the economy.
  • Created a war-dependent financial structure, making France reliant on military victories for stability.

Cultural Shifts

• Secular Festivals
  • The Directory continued the secular policies of the Revolution, promoting non-religious festivals.
  • Introduced Festival of the 1st Vendémiaire (September 22) to celebrate the Republic’s foundation.
  • Encouraged rationalist and deistic beliefs, reducing the influence of Catholic traditions.
• Changing Fashion
  • Revolutionary styles shifted to classical Greco-Roman influences, reflecting republican ideals.
  • Aristocratic extravagance was rejected, favoring simpler, practical clothing.
  • The Incroyables (male) and Merveilleuses (female) emerged, adopting bold fashion trends as a statement of anti-Jacobin sentiments.
• Rise of Political Cynicism
  • Widespread corruption disillusioned the public, leading to apathy toward the government.
  • Many citizens viewed politicians as self-serving, focusing more on personal enrichment than national stability.
  • Satirical literature and pamphlets mocked the Directory, exposing its inefficiencies and hypocrisy.

Comparison of Directory’s Moderate Approach vs. Jacobin Radicalism

IX – Napoleon’s rise: coup and consolidation of power

Brumaire Coup

• Overthrow of the Directory
  • The Coup of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) marked the end of the Directory and the beginning of Napoleon’s rule.
  • Political instability, corruption, and reliance on military power had weakened the Directory’s authority.
  • Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès, a Director, sought military support to reorganize the government, choosing Napoleon Bonaparte as the key figure.
  • Napoleon and his troops occupied the Council of Ancients and Council of Five Hundred, forcing the resignation of key officials.
  • The coup eliminated the ineffective executive system, replacing it with Napoleon’s centralized rule.
• Establishment of the Consulate
  • After the coup, Napoleon established the Consulate, a new form of government, marking the transition from revolution to authoritarian rule.
  • The Constitution of Year VIII (1799) created a system where Napoleon was the First Consul, holding absolute power over legislation, military, and administration.
  • The Consulate included three consuls, but Napoleon dominated decision-making, effectively making him a military dictator under republican disguise.
  • The Council of State was formed, composed of advisors handpicked by Napoleon to draft laws.
  • Marked the end of revolutionary democracy, solidifying a centralized executive authority.
• Manipulation of Political Factions
  • Napoleon exploited the divisions between Jacobins, royalists, and moderates, presenting himself as a unifier of France.
  • Gained support from former revolutionaries by promising stability, while reassuring conservatives by restoring religious order.
  • Used censorship and propaganda to control public perception, limiting dissent from radical factions.
  • Maintained the illusion of republicanism, while effectively holding unchecked power.

Napoleonic Image-Building

• Military Hero
  • Napoleon’s reputation as a brilliant general stemmed from his successes in the Italian campaign (1796–1797) and the Egyptian expedition (1798–1799).
  • Defeated Austrian forces at Lodi, Arcole, and Rivoli, proving his strategic genius.
  • Despite failing in Egypt against British forces, he returned to France as a hero, concealing the true extent of military failures.
  • Depicted himself as a warrior who saved the French Republic from internal and external enemies.
• Champion of Order
  • Promised to end revolutionary chaos and restore stability, appealing to those weary of political turmoil.
  • Introduced strict policing and surveillance measures, ensuring law and order.
  • Appealed to bourgeoisie and property owners by protecting economic interests and suppressing radical movements.
  • Presented himself as above factional conflicts, positioning himself as France’s protector rather than a political figure.
• Restorer of National Pride
  • Revived the symbolism of Roman imperial greatness, associating himself with historical figures like Julius Caesar and Charlemagne.
  • Established public monuments, military victories, and nationalistic propaganda, reinforcing his legitimacy as a ruler.
  • Created the Legion of Honor (1802) to reward military and civil service, reinforcing loyalty to his regime.

Plebiscites and Legitimacy

• Direct Appeal to the People
  • Napoleon held plebiscites (public referendums) to legitimize his rule, giving an appearance of popular support.
  • The 1800 plebiscite approved the Constitution of Year VIII, confirming Napoleon as First Consul.
  • The 1802 plebiscite made him Consul for Life, consolidating his dictatorial control.
  • These referendums were often rigged, with results manipulated to show overwhelming approval.
• Centralization of Authority
  • Reorganized the government, military, and administration, ensuring all power flowed through him.
  • Created the Prefect system, appointing state officials directly loyal to him in all departments of France.
  • Controlled press, education, and public institutions, making criticism of his regime difficult.
  • Parliament existed but had no real power, functioning as a tool for Napoleon’s policies.
• Suppression of Opposition
  • Crushed Jacobin plots, targeting anyone advocating a return to radical republicanism.
  • Used secret police under Joseph Fouché to monitor and eliminate threats.
  • Censored newspapers, allowing only state-controlled publications to operate.
  • Exiled royalist opponents, preventing any Bourbon restoration efforts.

Concordat with the Pope

• Religious Reconciliation
  • Signed the Concordat of 1801 with Pope Pius VII, ending the hostility between France and the Catholic Church.
  • Recognized Catholicism as the “religion of the majority”, but not as the state religion.
  • Allowed freedom of worship, preventing religious conflicts.
  • Clergy were paid by the state, making them loyal to the government rather than the Vatican.
• State Control over Clerical Appointments
  • Napoleon retained the right to appoint bishops, ensuring Church leaders remained politically aligned with his government.
  • The Pope had no authority over appointments, limiting Vatican influence in France.
  • The Church returned to public life, but Napoleon held ultimate control over religious institutions.
• Symbolic Healing of France
  • The Concordat restored unity between Catholics and the revolutionary state, reducing religious tensions.
  • Allowed exiled priests to return, improving relations with religious conservatives.
  • Helped Napoleon gain support from traditionalist factions, securing wider acceptance of his rule.

Differentiation of Napoleon’s Authoritarianism vs. Revolutionary Ideals

X – Napoleonic reforms and code

Administrative Centralization

• Prefect System
  • Established a highly centralized administrative structure to ensure direct state control over local governance.
  • Created the Prefect system in 1800, appointing government officials (prefects) to oversee each department.
  • Prefects were appointed by Napoleon, ensuring loyalty to the central government.
  • Each prefect controlled tax collection, law enforcement, public works, and education in their region.
  • Replaced locally elected officials with centrally appointed administrators, reducing regional autonomy.
• Centralized Bureaucracy
  • Strengthened government institutions by replacing revolutionary-era decentralization with hierarchical efficiency.
  • Ministries became specialized and strictly organized, increasing government efficiency.
  • Standardized legal and administrative procedures, ensuring uniformity across France.
  • Civil servants were recruited based on competence rather than birth, creating a modern bureaucratic state.
• Merit-Based Appointments
  • Introduced a meritocracy in government jobs, replacing aristocratic privilege with ability-based promotions.
  • Created competitive examinations for bureaucratic positions.
  • Ensured that education and experience determined careers, particularly in law, military, and civil service.
  • Appointed capable administrators regardless of social background, strengthening state efficiency.

Napoleonic Code

• Uniform Civil Laws
  • Issued in 1804, also known as the Civil Code of the French, it became France’s first comprehensive legal system.
  • Standardized laws across all French territories, replacing regional variations and feudal customs.
  • Abolished feudal privileges, reinforcing equality before the law.
  • Enforced contract law, property rights, and obligations, ensuring legal clarity for businesses and individuals.
• Property Rights
  • Guaranteed private property ownership, strengthening the rights of landowners and investors.
  • Protected land acquired during the Revolution, preventing nobles from reclaiming their estates.
  • Ensured that contracts were legally binding, reinforcing economic stability.
• Patriarchal Authority
  • Reinforced male dominance in family law, giving fathers and husbands significant legal control over women and children.
  • Women had limited legal rights, requiring husband’s permission for financial transactions and employment.
  • Married women were legally subordinate to their husbands, reflecting traditional gender roles.
• Influence on Global Legal Systems
  • The Napoleonic Code became one of the most influential legal systems worldwide, inspiring law codes in Europe, Latin America, and Asia.
  • Adopted in Belgium, the Netherlands, Italy, and Spain, forming the basis of modern legal frameworks.
  • Inspired the German Civil Code (1900), the Italian Civil Code (1865), and elements of Indian contract law.

Educational Reforms

• Lycées and Standardized Curriculum
  • Established lycées (secondary schools) in 1802, creating a state-controlled education system.
  • Standardized the curriculum across France, focusing on math, science, history, and political philosophy.
  • Placed education under direct government supervision, reducing church influence over schooling.
  • Emphasized discipline, order, and loyalty to the state, shaping future bureaucrats and military leaders.
• Promotion of Technical and Military Training
  • Expanded technical institutes to train engineers, scientists, and administrators.
  • Strengthened military academies, ensuring a steady supply of well-trained officers for Napoleon’s campaigns.
  • Created a highly skilled workforce, preparing students for government service and industry.
  • Encouraged scientific advancements, supporting engineering, medicine, and artillery innovations.

Social Policies

• Nobility of the Empire
  • Reintroduced a hereditary aristocracy, but based on merit and service rather than birthright.
  • Created the Napoleonic Nobility in 1808, rewarding loyal military officers and administrators with titles.
  • Unlike the Old Regime, nobles did not have feudal privileges but held prestigious ranks and influence.
  • Ensured that new nobility remained loyal to the empire, strengthening Napoleon’s political base.
• Rewards for Loyalty
  • Granted titles, land, and pensions to soldiers, generals, and government officials who demonstrated loyalty.
  • Introduced the Legion of Honor in 1802, France’s highest military and civil decoration, awarded for bravery and public service.
  • Encouraged merit-based advancement, allowing commoners to rise through military or administrative ranks.
• Tension Between Equality Rhetoric and Hierarchical Honors
  • Despite promoting legal equality, Napoleon reinstituted hierarchical distinctions through honorary titles and rewards.
  • Created a society where privilege was based on service rather than birth, balancing revolutionary ideals with personal rule.
  • Critics argued that Napoleon’s system mimicked monarchical traditions, contradicting republican values.

Comparative Impact of Napoleonic Code vs. Old Regime Laws

XI – Continental System and the Napoleonic Wars

Grand Empire Expansion

• Strategic Annexations
  • Napoleon expanded French control across Europe, creating the Grand Empire (1804–1815).
  • Directly annexed Belgium, the Netherlands, parts of Italy, and German territories.
  • Integrated these regions into France’s administrative and legal framework, imposing the Napoleonic Code.
  • Reorganized German states into the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), ending the Holy Roman Empire.
  • Controlled strategic locations to weaken Austria and Prussia, ensuring French hegemony in Europe.
• Dependent States
  • Established satellite kingdoms ruled by Napoleon’s family and loyal generals.
  • Installed Joseph Bonaparte as King of Spain (1808) and Louis Bonaparte as King of Holland (1806).
  • Replaced traditional monarchies with pro-French administrations, enforcing French laws and economic policies.
  • Created a continental system of client states, ensuring their economies and military forces served France.
• Alliances Through Marriage
  • Strengthened diplomatic influence through marital alliances.
  • Married Marie Louise of Austria (1810), securing peace with the Habsburgs.
  • Established dynastic ties with influential European families, legitimizing French rule over occupied territories.
  • Used marriage as a tool of diplomacy, preventing coalitions against France.

Continental System

• Economic Warfare Against Britain
  • Introduced the Continental System in 1806, imposing a trade embargo against Britain.
  • Aimed to cripple the British economy by blocking European markets from British goods.
  • Enforced the Berlin Decree (1806) and Milan Decree (1807), banning European trade with Britain.
  • Sought to weaken British industrial dominance while making France the center of European trade.
• Blockade Challenges
  • The British responded with the Orders in Council (1807), imposing a counter-blockade on French-controlled territories.
  • The Royal Navy maintained naval supremacy, preventing France from fully enforcing the blockade.
  • Many neutral states, including the United States, suffered economic losses due to disruptions in transatlantic trade.
  • Economic hardship alienated European allies, weakening support for Napoleon’s policies.
• Smuggling and Resentment in Satellite States
  • European merchants engaged in widespread smuggling, bypassing French trade restrictions.
  • Nations like Portugal, Spain, and Russia refused full compliance, continuing trade with Britain.
  • Economic distress led to growing opposition in occupied territories, fueling nationalist movements.
  • The failure of the Continental System contributed to Napoleon’s declining influence in Europe.

Military Campaigns

• Successes at Austerlitz and Jena
  • Achieved his greatest military victory at Austerlitz (December 2, 1805) against Austria and Russia.
  • Used deceptive tactics, allowing the enemy to overextend before counterattacking strategically.
  • Crushed the Third Coalition, forcing Austria to sign the Treaty of Pressburg (1805).
  • Defeated Prussia at the Battle of Jena-Auerstedt (October 14, 1806), securing control over central Europe.
  • Occupied Berlin and forced Prussia into submission, consolidating French dominance in Germany.
• Difficulties in the Iberian Peninsular War
  • Spain and Portugal resisted French occupation, leading to a prolonged guerrilla war (1808–1814).
  • The Duke of Wellington led British forces, aiding Spanish and Portuguese insurgents against Napoleon.
  • French forces faced constant ambushes, supply shortages, and hit-and-run attacks by Spanish guerrillas.
  • The war drained French resources, forcing Napoleon to divert troops from other campaigns.
  • Marked the beginning of Napoleon’s military decline, proving his forces were vulnerable to asymmetric warfare.

Invasion of Russia

• Scorched Earth Policy
  • Napoleon launched the Russian Campaign in June 1812, seeking to punish Russia for withdrawing from the Continental System.
  • The Russian army retreated deeper into the country, using scorched earth tactics to destroy food supplies and infrastructure.
  • French forces advanced without adequate supplies, struggling with hunger, disease, and exhaustion.
  • Moscow was captured in September 1812, but Tsar Alexander I refused to surrender.
  • French troops found the city abandoned and set on fire, depriving them of winter shelter and provisions.
• Logistical Failures
  • Napoleon’s Grand Army (over 600,000 troops) lacked sufficient supplies for extended warfare.
  • Harsh Russian winter conditions (as low as -30°C) devastated French troops and horses.
  • Communications broke down, leading to disorganized troop movements and supply failures.
  • The Russian army avoided direct battles, allowing nature and starvation to weaken the French forces.
• Disastrous Retreat
  • The French retreat from Moscow (October 1812–December 1812) turned into a catastrophic loss.
  • Russian forces harassed the retreating army, inflicting severe casualties.
  • The Battle of Berezina (November 1812) resulted in thousands of deaths as French troops attempted to cross the frozen river.
  • Napoleon’s army was reduced to fewer than 100,000 soldiers, suffering one of the worst military defeats in history.
  • Marked the beginning of Napoleon’s downfall, as European powers saw France’s vulnerability.

Contrasts in Napoleon’s Initial Military Dominance vs. Eventual Overstretch

XII – The fall of Napoleon and the Congress of Vienna

Battle of Leipzig

• Defeat of French Forces
  • The Battle of Leipzig (October 16–19, 1813), also known as the Battle of Nations, was Napoleon’s largest defeat.
  • The Sixth Coalition, consisting of Russia, Prussia, Austria, and Sweden, confronted Napoleon’s weakened army.
  • Outnumbered by over 350,000 Coalition troops against 190,000 French troops, Napoleon struggled to maintain his previous tactical superiority.
  • The battle ended with French forces retreating across the Rhine, marking a turning point against Napoleon’s dominance in Europe.
• Crumbling Alliances
  • Napoleon’s previously loyal satellite states, including the Confederation of the Rhine, defected to the Coalition.
  • Former allies, including Bavaria, Saxony, and the Netherlands, turned against France, seeking national autonomy.
  • The Peninsular War in Spain further drained Napoleon’s forces, weakening his ability to maintain control over occupied territories.
  • France lost influence in Germany, Italy, and Poland, reducing Napoleon’s ability to launch further campaigns.
• Exile to Elba
  • After French forces retreated to Paris, Napoleon abdicated the throne on April 6, 1814.
  • The Treaty of Fontainebleau (1814) exiled him to Elba, a Mediterranean island, allowing him to retain the title of Emperor but with no real power.
  • The Bourbon monarchy was restored in France, but Napoleon continued to monitor European politics from exile.

Hundred Days and Waterloo

• Brief Return
  • Napoleon escaped from Elba on February 26, 1815, landing in France on March 1, 1815.
  • As he marched toward Paris, thousands of troops defected to him, and King Louis XVIII fled.
  • Napoleon regained power without bloodshed, beginning the period known as the Hundred Days (March–June 1815).
  • He sought to rebuild his empire, promising constitutional rule, but faced immediate opposition from the Seventh Coalition.
• Final Downfall
  • The Battle of Waterloo (June 18, 1815) marked Napoleon’s final defeat against the British and Prussian armies.
  • The Duke of Wellington led British forces, while Field Marshal Blücher commanded Prussian reinforcements.
  • Napoleon’s reliance on delayed attacks and miscommunication among his marshals led to his army’s collapse.
  • The defeat at Waterloo ended Napoleon’s rule permanently, forcing his second abdication on June 22, 1815.
• Exile to Saint Helena
  • After surrendering to the British, Napoleon was exiled to Saint Helena, a remote island in the South Atlantic.
  • Unlike his exile in Elba, where he had some autonomy, he was under strict British supervision.
  • He spent his final years writing memoirs, dictating his justifications for his rule and military campaigns.
  • Napoleon died on May 5, 1821, marking the end of the Napoleonic era.

Restoration of Bourbon Monarchy

• Compromise with Revolutionary Gains
  • King Louis XVIII returned to power in 1814, attempting to balance between royalist traditions and revolutionary changes.
  • Issued the Charter of 1814, which maintained civil liberties, property rights from the Revolution, and a constitutional monarchy.
  • Promised to respect the Napoleonic Code and some democratic institutions, preventing radical counter-revolution.
• Attempts at Old Absolutism
  • Despite constitutional reforms, ultra-royalists pushed for a return to pre-revolutionary privileges.
  • The Catholic Church regained power, revoking many secular policies of the Napoleonic era.
  • Aristocrats sought to reclaim confiscated lands, causing tensions with the bourgeoisie and peasantry.
  • Led to discontent among former revolutionaries, Bonapartists, and liberals, who opposed absolute monarchy restoration.
• Public Discontent
  • The monarchy faced constant opposition from Bonapartist sympathizers and republicans.
  • The White Terror (1815) saw royalist reprisals against former revolutionaries, creating political instability.
  • Economic struggles and failure to adapt to the new political climate increased public dissatisfaction.

Congress of Vienna

• Balance of Power Principle
  • The Congress of Vienna (1814–1815) aimed to restore European stability after Napoleon’s defeat.
  • Led by Austrian Chancellor Klemens von Metternich, along with Britain, Prussia, Russia, and France.
  • Established the principle of balance of power, ensuring no single nation dominated Europe again.
  • Created an alliance system to counter future revolutions, reinforcing monarchical rule.
• Territorial Rearrangements
  • France was reduced to its 1792 borders, losing territories gained during the Napoleonic Wars.
  • The Netherlands and Belgium united under the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
  • Prussia gained lands in Germany, increasing its influence in Central Europe.
  • Austria regained dominance in Italy, suppressing nationalist movements.
  • Poland was partitioned, with Russia controlling most of it under the Congress Kingdom of Poland.
• Restoration of Conservative Order
  • Monarchies were reinstated across Europe, rejecting liberal and nationalist uprisings.
  • The Holy Alliance (Russia, Prussia, Austria) formed to suppress revolutionary movements.
  • Britain played a balancing role, promoting moderation over extreme conservatism.
  • Ignored the growing sentiments of nationalism and democracy, setting the stage for future revolutions.

Contrasting Revolutionary and Napoleonic Influences on Post-1815 Europe

The Congress of Vienna sought to erase revolutionary and Napoleonic influences, but failed to suppress the growing demand for nationalism and constitutionalism, shaping Europe’s future political landscape.

1. Assess the impact of the Napoleonic Code on legal and social structures in France and beyond. To what extent did it uphold revolutionary ideals while reinforcing authoritarianism? (250 words)
2. Examine the role of economic crises in triggering the French Revolution. How did financial mismanagement and taxation policies contribute to the downfall of the Old Regime? (250 words)
3. Analyze the ideological and political differences between the Girondins and Montagnards. How did their rivalry shape the course and outcomes of the Revolution? (250 words)