19.1 Rise of Nationalism in the 19th Century

Introduction

In the 19th century, nationalism emerged as a defining political and cultural force in Europe, transforming its complex state system. Nation-states replaced dynastic empires and multi-ethnic kingdoms, as groups united by common language, history, and tradition sought self-determination. Enlightenment ideas of popular sovereignty combined with Romantic cultural revival to elevate the nation above dynastic rule. This overview examines the intellectual roots of modern nationalism and its rise in events like the French Revolution, Napoleonic Wars, the Congress of Vienna order, the 1830 and 1848 revolutions, and the unifications of Italy and Germany. It also considers nationalist currents in Eastern Europe, the impact on major powers (Britain, France, Austria, Russia), the influence on colonial movements, and contemporary theories of nationhood.

Roots of Nationalism

• Enlightenment and popular sovereignty: 18th-century thinkers like Rousseau, Locke, and Voltaire challenged absolute monarchy by arguing that legitimate authority comes from the people. The idea that sovereignty rests with citizens (not kings) laid the groundwork for self-determination, as people began to conceive of collective rights and the common will of a nation.
• Cultural identity and Volkgeist: Intellectuals such as Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) promoted the idea of Volkgeist or “national spirit,” suggesting each language and folk tradition defined a unique community. These ideas inspired Romantic scholarship: for example, the Brothers Grimm collected German folk tales (first published 1812), and Elias Lönnrot compiled Finland’s national epic Kalevala (1835), each effort fueling cultural pride.
• Print culture and education: Increased literacy and vernacular newspapers spread nationalist ideas. By the mid-19th century, literacy in parts of Central Europe exceeded 60–70%, allowing citizens to read shared histories and folklore. Newly established public schools emphasized a common language and national history, creating an imagined community across distant provinces.
• Decline of dynasties and empires: The weakening of feudal structures and supranational loyalties left a vacuum for national identity. The French Revolution dismantled the Ancien Régime, shifting loyalties from princes to nations. The Holy Roman Empire was dissolved in 1806 after defeat by Napoleon, symbolizing the end of medieval multi-ethnic rule in Central Europe. Nationalism emerged as an alternative to dynastic allegiance, promising political participation and popular sovereignty under a national banner.

French Revolution’s Influence

• Nationalism of citizenship: The French Revolution (1789–1799) reframed loyalty in national terms. The 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man emphasized that legitimate authority comes from the people, implying the nation (the French people) as the source of sovereignty. This concept of a citizenry united by common rights inspired political activists across Europe.
• “Nation in arms” and conscription: Revolutionary France (and later Napoleon) mobilized mass citizen armies. The levée en masse (1793) drafted hundreds of thousands of men into service, literally arming the population in defense of the nation. Such mobilization inculcated national unity, as commoners of all regions fought together. French military success against coalition armies demonstrated national resolve, spreading nationalist enthusiasm.
• Export of revolution: French armies carried revolutionary and nationalist ideas across Europe. In occupied territories (Italy, the Low Countries, German states), the Napoleonic Code and administrative reforms abolished feudal privileges and unified laws. For example, when French troops entered German lands, nationalist intellectuals like Fichte reacted by articulating a German national consciousness. These reforms (though imposed by France) sowed seeds of unity among conquered peoples.
• Symbols and identity: Revolutionary France created enduring national symbols. The Tricolor flag and the anthem La Marseillaise became emblems of the nation. These symbols represented the new idea of the French nation and were later emulated elsewhere. Revolutionary iconography (Liberty caps, Marianne the Republic) and festivals celebrated the nation rather than a monarch. The example of France’s patriotic fervor showed other Europeans how symbols and state institutions could cultivate national identity.

Napoleonic Wars and National Consciousness

• Wars of liberation: The coalition wars against Napoleon (1792–1815) stirred nationalist reactions. In Spain, the 1808 uprising (Dos de Mayo) became a Spanish patriotic struggle against French occupation, inspiring guerrilla warfare. In Germany, Napoleon’s 1806 victory over Prussia and the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire spurred calls for German unity. These conflicts were framed as liberation wars (Befreiungskriege), where ordinary people began to see themselves as defending their nation.
• Napoleonic state-building: Napoleon reorganized Europe in some nationalist ways. He created the Confederation of the Rhine (1806), uniting many German states under a loose league, and the Kingdom of Italy (1805) in the north of Italy. Though French-dominated, these entities replaced old feudal orders and introduced modern administration and the Napoleonic Code (equality before law, secular civil institutions). This consolidation exposed peoples to the idea of larger political units defined by territory and laws, hinting at national integration.
• Polish revival: The Poles briefly saw a national resurgence under Napoleon. The Duchy of Warsaw (established 1807) reconstituted a Polish state of sorts after the partitions of the 1790s. Though it relied on Napoleon, it revived Polish institutions, language, and hope for sovereignty. Poles served in Napoleon’s army, and Napoleon’s defeat led to plans for resurrecting Poland at Vienna (1815, ultimately frustrated). The Napoleonic era thus rekindled Polish national consciousness.
• Mass conscription: By the Napoleonic Wars, millions across Europe had been conscripted. France and its enemies raised enormous armies (France alone mobilized over a million men by 1813). This mass mobilization engaged civilians in national causes and spread nationalist propaganda. In Prussia, reforms created a citizen militia. Shared sacrifice in war tied people’s fate to their country, reinforcing ideas of a national community.
• Cultural nationalism: The wartime era sparked cultural expressions of nationalism. Beethoven’s Eroica (initially dedicated to Napoleon) and his later Ninth Symphony (1824, with Schiller’s “Ode to Joy”) celebrated human freedom. In Italy, poets like Ugo Foscolo wrote patriotic verse. German painters (e.g. Caspar David Friedrich) depicted landscapes as spiritual home. These cultural works elevated local tradition and nature, reinforcing that each nation had its own destiny and culture to defend.

Congress of Vienna and Reactionary Europe

• Goals of the Congress (1815): After Napoleon’s defeat, the Great Powers (Britain, Austria, Russia, Prussia) met at Vienna to restore stability. They aimed to reinstate old dynasties and create buffers against revolution. For example, they formed the Kingdom of the Netherlands to contain France, and strengthened Prussia in the Rhineland. National borders were often rearranged to serve monarchies, not ethnic groups. The result was a “Legitimacy” principle favoring traditional rulers, temporarily suppressing nationalist aspirations.
• Restoration and repression: Austria’s Prince Metternich epitomized reactionary policy. Believing nationalism threatened the multi-ethnic Habsburg realm, Metternich and his allies cracked down on dissent. The Carlsbad Decrees (1819) banned nationalist student fraternities and censored the press in the German Confederation, stifling liberal ideas. Secret police and the Holy Alliance united monarchs in suppressing revolts. This conservative order held until the 1830s: loyalty to king and empire was legally enforced, and nationalist activists were persecuted.
• New political map: Many nationalist dreams were put on hold. The German Confederation (1815) linked 39 German states under Austrian chairmanship, but did not unify them. Italy reverted to pre-Napoleonic rulers (Austria back in Lombardy-Venetia, the Pope restored in Rome, small states like Sardinia intact). Greece was still Ottoman. These arrangements neglected ethnic claims and left central Europeans under foreign or imperial rule. In effect, 1815 redrew borders to prevent nationalism, fueling resentment.
• Seeds of resentment: Reactionary measures drove nationalist movements underground. Student and secret societies proliferated (e.g. the Italian Carbonari, 1820s; German Turner and Burschenschaft clubs). In the Balkans, suppressed Christian populations (Serbs, Greeks) nurtured nationalist yearnings. Even under repression, ideas circulated. The Greek struggle was eventually supported by liberal Europeans (the Philhellenes) in the late 1820s. Thus, the Vienna Settlement postponed nationalist change but did not extinguish it.
• Continuing conflicts: The conservative order faced early challenges. In 1820–22, constitutional revolts broke out (Naples, Spain) but were put down by Austrian or French armies, demonstrating the regime’s willingness to intervene. It was only the Revolution of 1830 (and later 1848) that truly broke the old order. In summary, the post-Napoleonic order tried to prevent nationalism by restoring emperors and imposing censorship, but it also inadvertently created a ferment that exploded later in mid-century revolutions.

Romanticism and National Identity

• Cultural revival: The Romantic era (c. 1790–1850) emphasized each nation’s unique spirit. Literature, folklore, and history became the foundations of national pride. Sir Walter Scott’s historical novels (e.g. Waverley, 1814) revived Scottish legend, while German writers like Goethe and Schiller dramatized national myths and heroism. Eastern Europe saw similar trends (e.g. Bulgarian Revival poets, Czech historians). This cultural flowering fostered a consciousness that each people had a distinct heritage.
• Folk traditions: Romantics collected local tales and songs as evidence of national character. The Brothers Grimm and Ludwig Tieck in Germany, Johan Ludvig Runeberg in Finland and Elias Lönnrot for the Finnish Kalevala compiled folklore as national treasure. By valuing peasant culture and vernacular language, they argued that true nationhood sprang from the common people. These efforts supported nationalism by showing citizens that their customs and myths were worthy of pride and preservation.
• Music and visual arts: Composers and artists stirred nationalist feelings through native themes. Ludwig van Beethoven (German) included universalist ideals in his Ninth Symphony (1824). Felix Mendelssohn’s Scottish Symphony (1842) celebrated Scottish heritage. In Poland, Frédéric Chopin used Polish dances in his music to assert Polish identity. Painters like Caspar David Friedrich depicted the German landscape as majestic and evocative of German soul. These art forms made the abstract idea of the “nation” emotionally resonant to ordinary people.
• Legends and heroes: Nationalists idealized historical figures and legendary origins. The Finnish Kalevala poem (1835) became a symbol of Finnish nationhood. Irish and Welsh Celtic myths were revived. Historians and poets (e.g. Polish Adam Mickiewicz) highlighted past heroes of liberty, creating modern national epics. Monuments and festivals celebrated national martyrs. These narratives convinced people they shared a heroic past and collective destiny, strengthening the sense of a common national identity.

Revolutions of 1830 and 1848

• July Revolution (1830): Nationalist fervor returned with the Paris uprising that ousted King Charles X and installed Louis-Philippe. Inspired by France, Belgian patriots rebelled against Dutch rule (1830–31), securing Belgium’s independence as a constitutional kingdom (population ~4 million). Uprisings also occurred in Poland (November 1830–31, ~100,000 insurgents against Russia) and in parts of Italy and Spain, where liberals in Piedmont, Naples, and Catalonia demanded constitutions and representative government. These revolts showed that people would again challenge absolutism with nationalist demands.
• French-inspired nationalism: The July Monarchy in France adopted revolutionary symbols (the Tricolor flag, nationalist slogans) to legitimize itself, encouraging liberal-nationalist sentiment abroad. Over time, Louis-Philippe’s regime became conservative and disappointed radicals, but 1830 confirmed that popular revolt could reshape governments. Throughout Europe, intellectuals and activists saw that constitutional limits and national constitutions were possible, reinforcing the belief in national self-determination.
• Revolutions of 1848: A widespread wave of nationalist and liberal revolts swept Europe. In France, the February 1848 Revolution toppled Louis-Philippe and established the Second Republic with universal male suffrage. In the German states, uprisings in Berlin, Vienna, and many cities demanded unity and freedom; the Frankfurt Parliament (1848–49) convened about 580 delegates from 38 states to draft a German constitution. In Italy, insurgents in Milan and Venice briefly expelled Austrian garrisons and declared republics. In the Austrian Empire, Hungarian leader Lajos Kossuth and other Slavic deputies pressed for independence or autonomy. These revolts linked demands for national unity with liberal reforms (constitutions, parliaments, elections).
• Outcome and legacy: By 1849 most uprisings were crushed by conservative forces (Austria and Russia defeated Hungary; the French Republic gave way to Louis-Napoleon). However, rulers were forced to concede some changes (e.g. constitutions in Prussia, reforms in Austria 1867). Crucially, the revolutions of 1848 made clear that nationalism was now a potent mass movement fused with liberalism. It set the stage for future nation-states: Italian and German unification in the 1860s–70s owed much to the experience and awareness gained in 1848.

Unification of Germany

• Fragmented states: After 1815, Germany was a patchwork of about 39 states in the German Confederation under Austrian leadership. Intellectuals and the middle class embraced the idea of a single German nation. Early nationalist movements included student clubs (Burschenschaften, e.g. the Hambach Festival of 1832) and the Zollverein (Customs Union, formed 1834 by Prussia), which economically integrated many German states (except Austria) by abolishing internal tariffs. These steps fostered a sense of German unity.
• Debate and Realpolitik: Germans debated whether to include Austria (“Großdeutschland”) or exclude it (“Kleindeutschland”). Ultimately, Prussia led the effort. Chancellor Otto von Bismarck pursued Realpolitik: in 1864 he allied with Austria to seize the Danish provinces of Schleswig and Holstein. In 1866 he provoked and won the Austro-Prussian War (seven-week war, decisive Prussian victory at Königgrätz). Austria was effectively expelled from German affairs, and the North German Confederation (1867) united 22 northern states under Prussian hegemony.
• Franco-Prussian War (1870–71): To bring the southern German states into the fold, Bismarck engineered a war with France (provoking Napoleon III via the Ems Telegram). The southern kingdoms (Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, etc.) sided with Prussia. The German coalition won swiftly (for example capturing Napoleon III at Sedan) and besieged Paris. On 18 January 1871, King Wilhelm I of Prussia was proclaimed German Emperor at Versailles, forming the new German Empire (Deutsches Reich). This empire comprised 25 German states and had about 41 million people, making it a leading European power.
• Consolidation: The German Empire adopted a federal constitution with a Bundesrat (council of states) and a Reichstag (parliament elected by universal male suffrage). Prussian dominance ensured continuity, but the empire promoted a common German identity: German was the official language, and national symbols (black-red-gold flag, Imperial eagle) and hymns (e.g. Die Wacht am Rhein) were institutionalized. Rapid industrial growth and military strength followed unification. By 1875 Germany’s coal output rivaled Britain’s, and by 1910 it was Europe’s leading economy. German unification dramatically shifted the balance of power on the continent, illustrating the force of nationalism in creating a modern nation-state.

Unification of Italy

• Fragmented Italy: In the early 19th century, the Italian peninsula was divided among foreign and local rulers: Austrian-controlled Lombardy-Venetia in the north; the Papal States (centered in Rome) and small duchies (Tuscany, Modena, Parma) in the center; and the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily) in the south. Early nationalists (the Risorgimento movement) included secret societies like the Carbonari and visionaries such as Giuseppe Mazzini, who founded Young Italy (1831) to champion Italian unity and republic.
• Rise of Piedmont-Sardinia: The Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia, ruled by King Victor Emmanuel II and his minister Camillo Cavour, became the engine of unification. Cavour modernized the economy and military, built railroads, and aligned with France. In 1858 he secretly negotiated with Napoleon III, provoking war with Austria in 1859. Sardinian victories at the battles of Magenta and Solferino forced Austria to cede Lombardy (though Venetia remained under Austria). At the same time, popular uprisings in Tuscany, Modena, Parma and other states led to referendums that annexed these duchies to Sardinia, dramatically enlarging its territory by 1860.
• Garibaldi and the South: Nationalist Giuseppe Garibaldi became the popular hero of unification. In 1860 he led the Expedition of the Thousand – about 1,000 volunteer “Red Shirts” – to Sicily. His campaign quickly overthrew the Bourbon rulers of the Two Sicilies (Naples and Sicily). After landing in Naples, Garibaldi marched north. His conquests (confirmed by local plebiscites) were turned over to King Victor Emmanuel. This cleared most of southern Italy for union and led to the formal Kingdom of Italy proclamation in 1861 (initially excluding Venetia and Rome).
• Completion of unification: The final pieces fell into place by 1870. In 1866, allying with Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War, Italy was rewarded with Venetia (from defeated Austria). In 1870, as France (protector of the Papal States) withdrew during the Franco-Prussian War, Italian troops captured Rome; the city became Italy’s capital in 1871. By then the unified Kingdom of Italy encompassed most of the peninsula with about 25 million people, fulfilling the nationalist goal of a single Italian state (though northern Italy remained more industrial and the agrarian south continued to lag).
• Nation-building: The new Italy forged a national identity through culture and symbols. The green-white-red tricolor (adopted 1797) became the Italian flag, and patriotic songs like Verdi’s chorus “Va, pensiero” (in the opera Nabucco) were seen as unofficial anthems of liberty. The government implemented Italian-language education and promoted the standard Italian (based on Tuscan dialect) in place of local dialects. Monuments and holidays honored unification figures (Garibaldi, Cavour). However, Italy still faced challenges: regional differences (north vs. south) and the Vatican’s temporal power remained issues into the 20th century.

Eastern Europe and National Movements

• Balkan nationalism: As the Ottoman Empire weakened, nationalist uprisings reshaped Southeast Europe. Greece won independence by 1830 after a decade-long revolt (1821–29), aided by British, French and Russian intervention. Serbia achieved autonomy after rebellions in 1804–15 and gained full independence by 1878. The Romanian principalities united in 1859 into what became Romania (formally independent in 1878). Bulgarians revolted against Ottoman rule in 1876; the Russo-Turkish War (1877–78) that followed led to the creation of an autonomous Bulgarian principality (Treaty of Berlin, 1878). These successes also inspired rising Albanian cultural nationalism (though Albania remained Ottoman until 1912) and signaled the collapse of Ottoman authority in Europe.
• Austro-Hungarian Empire: The multi-ethnic Habsburg Empire faced intense national demands. In 1848 Hungarians (Magyars), led by Lajos Kossuth, sought full independence; this eventually led to the 1867 Ausgleich, granting Hungary its own parliament (Dual Monarchy of Austria-Hungary). Czechs in Bohemia and Slovaks in Hungary pursued a national revival (newspapers and Sokol gymnastic societies promoted Czech and Slovak culture). Croats, Slovenes, Romanians and Italians under Habsburg rule also asserted their identities. Nevertheless, a German-Magyar elite dominated the government, so the empire remained intact for the time, even as various ethnic groups sought more rights.
• Poland: Partitioned at the end of the 18th century by Russia, Prussia, and Austria, Poles repeatedly rebelled. The November Uprising (1830–31) and January Uprising (1863–64) against Russian rule were crushed, but Polish nationalism endured in exile and in Austrian Poland (Galicia). Polish language, Catholic faith, and historical tradition remained vibrant symbols. Many Poles served in foreign armies (for example in Napoleon’s Duchy of Warsaw, 1807–15) or advocated abroad, keeping alive the vision of a restored Polish state.
• Russia and minorities: The Russian Empire, covering many peoples, officially promoted “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nation.” Defeating Napoleon in 1812 boosted Russian patriotic pride. Still, national awakenings emerged: Finns won a constitution (1863) and defended Finnish culture; Ukrainians (then called Ruthenians) formed historical societies and literature in their language; Baltic intellectuals advanced Estonian and Latvian languages. The Tsarist state often responded with Russification (e.g. banning Polish and Ukrainian in schools), which in turn intensified nationalist sentiment.
• Pan-ideologies: Broader nationalist ideas also appeared. Pan-Slavism (the unity of Slavic peoples) attracted intellectuals in Russia and the Balkans. Pan-Germanism promoted solidarity among German-speaking communities beyond borders. Pan-Italianism (irredentism) claimed Italian-speaking regions still under Austrian rule. These supra-national movements amplified nationalist feelings and sometimes heightened tensions between neighboring states over ethnic kin.

Impact on Great Powers (Britain, France, Austria, Russia)

• Britain: As a stable constitutional monarchy, Britain avoided revolutionary nationalism at home. British patriotism focused on Parliament, monarchy, and empire. Britain often supported nationalist movements abroad if they served strategic interests: it backed Greek and Belgian independence to weaken rivals (Ottoman and Dutch). Irish nationalism persisted under the Union, with uprisings in 1798 and 1848 and the later Home Rule movement, but Britain’s own sense of nationhood centered on parliamentary governance and an expanding global empire rather than ethnic unity.
• France: Nationalism shaped France’s own turmoil. Revolutionary and Napoleonic France instilled patriotic fervor, with the tricolor flag and Marseillaise becoming national symbols. Successive regimes (Bourbon Restoration, July Monarchy, Second Empire, Third Republic) all invoked the nation: secular education (Jules Ferry’s schools, 1880s) inculcated national pride, and colonial expansion was justified as spreading French civilization. The humiliating defeat in 1870–71 (Franco-Prussian War) fueled revanchist nationalism, demanding return of Alsace-Lorraine. Overall, French politics were guided by a sense of national honor and destiny.
• Austria: The Habsburg Empire was the chief victim of 19th-century nationalism. Governing Germans, Hungarians, Czechs, Italians, etc., Vienna initially clamped down on nationalist agitation (Metternich’s repression after 1815). Only the 1867 compromise (giving Hungary self-rule) preserved the monarchy by acknowledging Magyar nationalism. The emperors promoted loyalty to the dynasty through common institutions (an imperial army, multi-ethnic schools) and propaganda. Yet Czech, Croatian, Slovene and Italian nationalist movements grew, often clashing with imperial policy. Austrian rulers kept the empire together by granting limited autonomy (e.g. in 1867) and emphasizing unity under the emperor, but nationalism remained a persistent challenge to Habsburg rule.
• Russia: The Russian Empire tried to harness nationalism as an adhesive. Nicholas I coined the slogan “Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nation.” Defeat of Napoleon in 1812 sparked patriotic pride and a flowering of Russian literature glorifying the nation. The regime promoted Russian language and Orthodox faith while expanding territory. However, this imperial nationalism meant harsh Russification for minorities; Poles, Finns, Ukrainians, and others faced cultural repression. Tsar Alexander II (r. 1855–81) enacted reforms (serf emancipation, limited self-government) to modernize but remained wary of nationalist dissent. In Russia, nationalism thus grew both as loyalty to the Tsar and as resistance by subject peoples. By century’s end, Russian rulers had to balance great-power pride with managing diverse nationalities within the empire.

Colonialism and Nationalism

• European nationalism and empire: In the 19th century, national rivalries fueled imperial expansion. Nations often used nationalist ideology to justify colonialism: empires were portrayed as extensions of national grandeur. National prestige was tied to global colonies. For example, both Britain and France argued they were spreading civilization and national glory through empire. European conflicts (e.g. Anglo-French tensions) played out overseas, and the late-century “Scramble for Africa” was driven by competitive nationalism among European powers.
• Colonial nationalism emerges: Paradoxically, European nationalist ideas also inspired anti-colonial movements. Educated colonial elites adopted concepts of nationhood and self-rule. In India, reformers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee (author of the hymn Vande Mataram, 1882) and leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji (founder of the Indian National Congress, 1885) began to invoke swaraj (self-rule) and speak of India as a nation. The 1857 Sepoy Uprising, though suppressed, was later hailed as India’s “first war of independence” and galvanized nationalist sentiments. In the Middle East, the 1882 Egyptian nationalist revolt (Urabi Uprising) expressed a modern sense of Egyptian nationhood. Throughout Asia and Africa, local newspapers and societies used nationalist language to demand autonomy. Thus, nationalism provided colonized peoples with a framework and vocabulary to challenge imperial rule.
• Global diffusion: By the late 19th century, nationalism had become a global force. Japan’s Meiji Restoration (1868) was driven by nationalist resolve to resist Western domination, transforming Japan into a unified modern nation-state. Latin American republics (born in the early 19th century) fostered national consciousness in their own right. Even in Qing China and the Ottoman Empire, reformers and intellectuals debated nationhood in response to foreign threats. In sum, the European nation-state model and its underlying ideology had spread worldwide, influencing independence movements and the eventual decolonization of the 20th century.

Intellectual Responses and Theories of Nationalism

• Cultural theorists: Philosophers like Johann Gottfried Herder argued each nation possesses a distinct Volkgeist (folk spirit) manifest in language and customs. Johann Fichte’s Addresses to the German Nation (1808) similarly invoked the German language as the essence of the German people. Such thinkers gave nationalism an intellectual foundation, portraying nations as organic cultural communities with inherent character.
• Romantic nationalism: Figures like Giuseppe Mazzini (Italy) saw nationalism as a moral mission. His Young Italy movement (1831) promoted the slogan “Dio e Popolo” (“God and People”), linking the nation to a higher purpose. In France, Ernest Renan (What is a Nation? 1882) argued that a nation is defined by the will of its people (“a daily plebiscite”) and shared history, not just blood or territory. These views framed nationhood as voluntary and emotional, based on consent and collective memory rather than solely on ethnicity.
• Race and ideology: The century also saw pseudo-scientific racial theories influencing nationalism. Social Darwinists (like Herbert Spencer) and writers such as Arthur de Gobineau (his 1853 Essay on the Inequality of Human Races) applied biological ideas to peoples, arguing for distinct racial identities and hierarchies. Gobineau’s ideas (emphasizing Aryan superiority) later fed German ethnic nationalism. By linking nation to race, some thinkers gave nationalism a more exclusionary or chauvinist dimension.
• Liberal and socialist critiques: Some observers warned of nationalism’s dangers. John Stuart Mill cautioned that an aggressive nationalism might oppress minorities within states. Karl Marx viewed national unification as largely a bourgeois project, believing class unity should trump national loyalty. Others developed broader ethnic ideologies: Pan-Slavism envisioned all Slavs united, while Pan-Germanism promoted solidarity of German-speakers. These varied responses show that nationalism was debated: seen by many as a positive ideal of self-rule, but by others as a potentially divisive force.

Comparative Chart of Nationalism

Conclusion

In summary, nationalism became a revolutionary force in 19th-century Europe, overthrowing old regimes and creating new nation-states. It mobilized millions—through ideas, symbols, and wars—to link political legitimacy to a shared identity. The continent’s map was redrawn: Germany and Italy unified; the multi-ethnic Habsburg, Ottoman and Russian empires were forced to reform; and the notion of the sovereign nation became a universal political principle. These nationalist ideals transcended Europe, influencing colonial peoples as well. For example, educated Indians began to see themselves as a nation entitled to swaraj. Nationalism thus reshaped societies by tying culture and identity to statehood—a legacy that profoundly defined modern history, for better and for worse (sparking unity and also setting the stage for future conflicts).

1. How did the French Revolution contribute to the development of nationalism in Europe?
2. Compare the unification processes of Germany and Italy in the 19th century, focusing on causes, leaders, and outcomes.
3. Examine the influence of 19th-century European nationalism on colonial regions, especially in the context of Indian nationalism.