2.1 Battle of Buxar: 1764 Causes, Events, Consequences

I. Introduction – Historical Context of Bengal during the Mid-18th Century

Historical Background of Bengal

• Bengal, during the mid-18th century, was known as the Bengal Subah and was the largest subdivision of Mughal India. This region encompassed modern-day Bangladesh, the Indian state of West Bengal, and parts of Bihar, Jharkhand, and Odisha.
• The Bengal Subah was established after the dissolution of the Bengal Sultanate, a significant trading nation. It was absorbed into the Mughal Empire, making Bengal one of the wealthiest regions in the Indian subcontinent.
• The state was known for its prosperity and was described as the “Paradise of Nations” and the “Golden Age of Bengal”. It was globally recognized for industries like textile manufacturing and shipbuilding.

Rise of British Influence in India

• By the 18th century, Bengal began to emerge as an independent state under the Nawabs of Bengal. This period saw significant contributions to proto-industrialization, especially in textile manufacturing.
• However, the region underwent deindustrialization after the British East India Company’s conquest at the Battle of Plassey in 1757. This battle marked a turning point, leading to the establishment of the Bengal Presidency and the beginning of British colonization in India.
• The British East India Company gradually rivaled the authority of the Nawabs. The Battle of Plassey in 1757 saw the defeat of the last independent Nawab, Siraj-ud-Daulah, with the help of the betrayal by Mir Jafar, a trusted general of the Nawab. This event led to the installation of Mir Jafar as a puppet Nawab under British influence.
• The subsequent defeat of Nawab Mir Qasim and other regional powers at the Battle of Buxar in 1764 further paved the way for British expansion across India.

Brief Mention of the Battle of Plassey and its Implications

• The Battle of Plassey, fought in 1757, was a pivotal event that marked the beginning of British colonial rule in India. The battle was fought between the British East India Company and the Nawab of Bengal, Siraj-ud-Daulah.
• The battle saw the betrayal of Siraj-ud-Daulah by his trusted general, Mir Jafar, which played a significant role in the British victory. Following the battle, Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab, but he was essentially a puppet ruler under British control.
• The implications of this battle were profound. It marked the start of a series of events that eventually led to the entire Indian subcontinent coming under British colonial rule. The political and economic landscape of Bengal, and by extension India, was forever changed.
• The British, after consolidating their power in Bengal, began to exert their influence over other parts of India, leading to the establishment of the British Raj.

II. Mir Jafar: The Puppet Nawab

Early Life and Rise to Power

• Mir Syed Jafar Ali Khan Bahadur was born in 1691 in Delhi. He was the second son among seven sons and eight daughters of Syed Ahmad Najafi (Mir Mirak).
• The family claimed descent from Hasan ibn Hasan.
• Jafar’s paternal grandfather, Syed Husayn Tabatabaei, migrated from Najaf in Iraq to Delhi in 1675 after being invited by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb.
• Tabatabaei married the emperor’s niece and served as a Qadi in the Mughal court.
• Jafar’s paternal aunt, Begum Sharfunnisa, was the wife of Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal.

Relationship with the British East India Company

• Mir Jafar’s relationship with the British East India Company began when he felt sidelined by Siraj ud-Daulah, the Nawab of Bengal.
• Jafar, along with other discontented nobles, sought the company’s military support to overthrow Siraj.
• The company, under Robert Clive and Watson, had regained and strengthened their position in Bengal.
• William Watts, a company official, became aware of the conspiracy against Siraj and learned that Jafar, being the paymaster of the Bengal army, was willing to offer significant amounts for the Nawab’s removal.

Role in the Battle of Plassey

• Mir Jafar served as the commander of the Bengali army under Siraj ud-Daulah.
• He played a pivotal role in the Battle of Plassey in 1757 by betraying Siraj, leading to the Nawab’s defeat against the British.
• This betrayal marked the beginning of British colonial rule in India.

Ascension as the Nawab of Bengal

• After the defeat and subsequent execution of Siraj Ud Daulah, Mir Jafar was installed as the Nawab of Bengal with the support of the British East India Company.
• He compensated the company and the traders of Calcutta with Rs. 17,700,000 for the attack on the city.
• Jafar also gave bribes to company officials, with Robert Clive receiving over two million rupees.
• However, his relationship with the company soured when he tried to collaborate with the Dutch. This led to the Battle of Chinsurah, after which he was forced to abdicate in favor of his son-in-law, Mir Qasim in 1760.
• Jafar was restored as Nawab in 1763 with the company’s support but ruled only until his death in 1765.

Policies and Administration under British Influence

• Mir Jafar’s reign was marked by his subservience to the British East India Company.
• His policies and administration were heavily influenced by the company’s interests, leading to the further colonization of Bengal.
• Due to his role in aiding the British colonization of India and the downfall of the Mughal Empire, Mir Jafar is viewed as a traitor in the Indian subcontinent, especially among Bengalis in India and Bangladesh. His name has become synonymous with treason in the region.

III. Mir Kasim: The Rebel Nawab

Early Life and Family

• Mir Syed Qasim was born as the son of Mir Muhammad Razi Khan and claimed descent from Ali al-Ridha.
• His paternal grandfather, Sayyid Husayn Ridhwi, migrated to the Mughal Empire during Aurangzeb’s reign. He married the daughter of Mir Hadi (Sheikh Sulayman Fazail) and was honored with the title of Imtiaz Khan. Ridhwi also served as the Waqia-navis (Interior Minister) and subsequently the Dewan of Bihar.
• Qasim’s grandfather, known by the pen name Khalis, wrote Persian poetry, and a lengthy diwan is attributed to him.
• Qasim married Fatima Begum, the daughter of Mir Jafar and Shah Khanum, and a granddaughter of Nawab Alivardi Khan of Bengal.
• Before becoming the Nawab of Bengal, Qasim served as the Faujdar of Rangpur for approximately two decades.

Ascension to Power after Mir Jafar

• Mir Qasim was installed as the Nawab of Bengal in 1760 with the support of the British East India Company, succeeding his father-in-law, Mir Jafar.
• Mir Jafar had previously been backed by the East India Company due to his role in the Battle of Plassey but later had disputes with them and tried to form an alliance with the Dutch East India Company.
• After the British defeated the Dutch at Chinsurah, they overthrew Mir Jafar and replaced him with Mir Qasim.

Efforts to Reduce British Influence

• Mir Qasim began his reign by rewarding the East India Company with lavish gifts and granted them the right to collect revenue from the districts of Burdwan, Midnapore, and Chittagong.
• However, disputes arose over trade issues, especially when Qasim tried to impose import and export tariffs on the company’s goods. The British particularly objected to a 9% duty imposed on all foreign traders.
• The deteriorating relationship led Qasim to shift his capital from Murshidabad to Munger in Bihar, where he raised an army and financed it by streamlining tax collection.
• Qasim strongly opposed the East India Company’s stance that their Mughal license (a dastak) exempted them from paying taxes, a privilege other local merchants did not enjoy. In response, he abolished taxes on local traders, leveling the playing field and escalating tensions.

Administrative and Military Reforms

• Mir Qasim moved against the British by attacking the Company offices in Patna in 1763, resulting in the deaths of several Europeans, including the Resident.
• He formed alliances with Shuja-ud-Daula of Avadh and Shah Alam II, the reigning Mughal emperor, to counter the British.
• Despite these efforts, their combined forces were defeated in the Battle of Buxar in 1764.
• Qasim also briefly invaded the Hindu Kingdom of Nepal in 1763 during Maharajadhiraja Prithvi Narayan Shah’s reign but was repelled.

Economic Policies and Trade Regulations

• Mir Qasim’s economic policies were marked by his efforts to reduce the British East India Company’s influence in Bengal.
• He attempted to levy import and export tariffs on the company’s goods, leading to disputes.
• In a significant move, he abolished taxes on local traders, challenging the preferential treatment the British traders had been enjoying.

IV. The Strained Relationship

Growing Tensions Between Mir Kasim and the British

• Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal and Bihar, grew increasingly discontented with the British East India Company’s influence in the region.
• The primary cause of his dissatisfaction was the imperial Farman that allowed the Company to trade in Bengal without paying inland duties.
• However, the Company’s servants demanded the same privilege for their private trade, leading to disputes.

Disputes Over Revenue Collection and Trade Privileges

• Governor Henry Vansittart tried to mediate by administering an agreement between Mir Qasim and the East India Company. This agreement made the Company’s servants liable to pay nine percent duties on their private trade.
• The Company Council in Calcutta rejected this agreement, citing a violation of a previous treaty between Governor Robert Clive and Nawab Mir Jafar.
• In response to the rejection and ongoing disagreements, Mir Qasim took a bold step by abolishing the duties altogether.

Shift of Capital to Munger

• To avoid political interference from the British, Mir Qasim shifted his capital from Murshidabad to Munger. Munger is located in the present-day Bhagalpur district of Bihar.
• This strategic move was aimed at consolidating his power and resources away from the direct influence of the British.

Formation of Alliances Against the British

• The growing hostilities between Mir Qasim and the British resulted in several military clashes. One of the chief opponents from the British side was William Ellis, head of Company factories in Bihar.
• Despite being numerically weaker, the English forces prevailed in every engagement against Mir Qasim’s troops.
• After facing defeats, Mir Qasim fled to Awadh. There, he formed a significant alliance with Nawab Shuja-ud-daulah and the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II.
• Together, they attempted to regain power through a military campaign. However, their combined forces were defeated at the Battle of Buxar.
• The failure of Mir Qasim’s revolt marked a pivotal moment in the history of British colonization of India.

V. Prelude to the Battle of Buxar

Political Scenario in Northern India

• During the mid-18th century, Northern India was a mosaic of competing powers.
• The Mughal Empire, once a dominant force, was in decline, losing its grip over vast territories.
• Regional powers, including the Marathas and Rohillas, were on the rise, seeking to carve out their own spheres of influence.
• The British East India Company was steadily gaining ground, leveraging its military and economic might.

Role of the Mughal Empire and the Nawab of Awadh

• The Mughal Empire, under Emperor Shah Alam II, had become largely ceremonial. The real power lay in the hands of regional leaders and foreign entities like the British.
• Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh was a significant regional power. He maintained a delicate balance of power, often aligning with the Mughals while also being wary of the British.
• The Nawab’s territory was rich and strategically located, making it a coveted prize for both the British and other Indian powers.

Initial Skirmishes and Confrontations Leading Up to the Battle

• Tensions between the British and regional powers, including Mir Qasim of Bengal and Nawab Shuja-ud-Daula of Awadh, had been escalating.
• The disputes over trade privileges and revenue collection were frequent flashpoints.
• Mir Qasim’s efforts to reduce British influence, including his military reforms and alliances with other regional leaders, set the stage for larger confrontations.
• The Battle of Katwa and the Battle of Giria, both in 1763, were significant preludes, with Mir Qasim facing off against British forces.
• These battles, although not decisive, indicated the growing military capabilities of the regional powers and their willingness to challenge the British.

VI. The Battle of Buxar: A Detailed Analysis

Date and location of the battle

• Fought between 22 and 23 October 1764.
• Location: Buxar, a fortified town in Bihar.
• Situated on the banks of the Ganges river.
• Approximately 130 kilometres west of Patna.

Key commanders and leaders

• British East India Company: Led by Sir Hector Munro.
• Opposing forces:
  • Mir Qasim: Former Nawab of Bengal till 1764.
  • Shuja-ud-Daula: Nawab of Awadh.
  • Shah Alam II: Mughal Emperor.
  • Najaf Khan: Commanded the right flank of the Mughal imperial army.

Strength and strategies of both sides

• British forces:
  • Total strength: 17,072.
  • Comprised of 1,859 British regulars.
  • 5,297 Indian sepoys.
  • 9,189 Indian cavalry.
• Alliance army:
  • Estimated strength: Over 40,000.
  • Some sources suggest the combined army of Mughals, Awadh, and Mir Qasim was around 10,000.
  • British army strength was around 7,000.
• Lack of coordination among the allies led to their defeat.
• Mirza Najaf Khan was the first to advance against Major Hector Munro.
• British lines formed within twenty minutes, reversing the Mughal advance.
• Durrani and Rohilla cavalry also participated in various skirmishes.

Course of the battle and key moments

• Battle began at daybreak.
• By midday, the battle was over.
• Shuja-ud-Daula blew up large tumbrils and three massive magazines of gunpowder.
• Munro divided his army into various columns.
• Pursued Shuja-ud-Daula, who blew up his boat-bridge after crossing the river.
• Abandoned Shah Alam II and members of his own regiment.
• Mir Qasim fled with gemstones worth 3 million rupees.
• Died in poverty in 1777.
• Mirza Najaf Khan reorganized formations around Shah Alam II.
• Shah Alam II retreated and later negotiated with the victorious British.

VII. Aftermath of the Battle of Buxar

Immediate consequences of the British victory

• The Battle of Buxar mark a significant victory for the British East India Company against the combined forces of Mir Qasim, the Nawab of Bengal; Shuja-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Awadh; and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II.
• Following the battle, the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765 was signed, marking the end of the war.
• The defeated Indian rulers were compelled to sign this treaty, which granted the East India Company diwani rights. This allowed the company to collect revenue and administer the territories of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• The acquisition of these rights provided the company with immense economic and administrative control, enabling them to exploit the resources of the region for their benefit.

Treaty negotiations and settlements

• The Treaty of Allahabad was a significant outcome of the Battle of Buxar.
• As a result of this treaty, the East India Company was granted the right to collect taxes from Bengal-Bihar.
• By 1772, the East India Company abolished local rule and assumed complete control over the province of Bengal-Bihar.

Implications for the Mughal Empire, Nawabs of Bengal, and Awadh

• The battle marked the decline of the Mughal Empire’s political influence as the British East India Company began consolidating its control over vast territories.
• Mir Qasim vanished into obscurity, living in poverty until his death in 1777.
• Shah Alam II surrendered to the British, while Shuja-ud-Daula fled but was eventually pursued and captured by the British forces.
• The entire Ganges valley came under the mercy of the company after the battle.

Establishment of British paramountcy in Northern India

• The Battle of Buxar reshaped the political landscape of colonial India, setting the stage for British dominance in the region.
• The British East India Company emerged as the dominant power in northern India, marking the decline of the Mughal Empire’s influence.
• The lack of unity and coordination among the Indian rulers, including the Nawabs and the Mughal Emperor, made it easier for the British to establish their dominance.
• The battle and its aftermath led to resentment and resistance among the Indian population. The oppressive policies and economic exploitation by the East India Company resulted in numerous uprisings, with the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857 being the most notable.
• The Battle of Buxar and its consequences solidified British dominance in the region, eroding the authority of Indian rulers and setting the stage for nearly two centuries of British rule in India.

VIII. The Legacy of Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim

Historical evaluations and perspectives

• Mir Jafar’s Ascendancy: Mir Jafar, originally named Mir Syed Jafar Ali Khan Bahadur, was a commander-in-chief who became the first dependent Nawab of Bengal under the British East India Company. His reign marked the beginning of British expansion in the Indian subcontinent.
• Betrayal at Plassey: Mir Jafar played a pivotal role in the Battle of Plassey where he betrayed Siraj ud-Daulah, leading to the Nawab’s defeat. This act of treachery allowed the British to establish a stronghold in Bengal.
• Reputation as a Traitor: Due to his role in aiding the British colonization of India and contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire, Mir Jafar is widely regarded as a traitor, especially among Bengalis in India and Bangladesh. His name has become synonymous with betrayal in the region.

Contributions and failures

• Role in British Expansion: Mir Jafar’s alliance with the British East India Company facilitated their control over Bengal. His reign is seen by many as a crucial step in the British domination of vast areas of pre-partition India.
• Financial Transactions with the British: After ascending to the throne, Mir Jafar compensated the British East India Company and the traders of Calcutta with Rs. 17,700,000 for the attack on the city. Additionally, he provided significant bribes to company officials.
• Diplomatic Endeavors: Mir Jafar tried to balance his relations with other European powers. In 1758, he made a treaty with the Dutch East India Company, which eventually led to the Battle of Chinsurah against the British.
• Restoration and Final Reign: After a series of political maneuvers and battles, Mir Jafar was restored as the Nawab in 1763 with the support of the British East India Company. He ruled until his death in 1765.

Their roles in the larger narrative of British expansion in India

• Strategic Alliance with the British: Both Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim played significant roles in the larger scheme of British expansion. While Mir Jafar’s betrayal at Plassey paved the way for British control, Mir Kasim’s resistance highlighted the challenges faced by local rulers.
• Mir Kasim’s Resistance: Mir Kasim, Mir Jafar’s son-in-law, showed resistance against the British, especially regarding trade policies. This led to conflicts and eventually the Battle of Buxar, further consolidating British power in the region.
• End of Mughal Suzerainty: The actions and decisions of Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim, combined with British military and political maneuvers, eventually led to the end of Mughal suzerainty in Bengal by 1793.

VIII. Comparative Analysis – Differences and similarities between Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim’s rule

Mir Jafar’s Rule and Relationship with the British

• Background: Mir Jafar was a military general who became the first dependent Nawab of Bengal under the British East India Company.
• Ascension to Power: He betrayed Siraj ud-Daulah during the Battle of Plassey, leading to British victory in 1757.
• British Support: Initially received military support from the East India Company.
• Conflict with the British:
  • Failed to meet British demands by 1760.
  • Made a treaty with the Dutch East India Company, leading to the Battle of Chinsurah.
  • Forced to abdicate in favor of Mir Qasim in 1760 but was restored in 1763 with British support.
• Death: Ruled until his death in 1765.
• Legacy:
  • Seen as a traitor in the Indian subcontinent for aiding British colonization.
  • His name synonymous with treason in the region.

Mir Kasim’s Rule and Relationship with the British

• Background: Mir Qasim was Mir Jafar’s son-in-law.
• Ascension to Power: Became Nawab after the company forced Mir Jafar to abdicate in 1760.
• Conflict with the British:
  • Disputed with the company over tax policies.
  • Formed an alliance to oust the East India Company from East India.
  • Faced the company in the Battle of Buxar in 1764 and was overthrown.
• Legacy:
  • Mir Qasim’s resistance against the company is notable.
  • His efforts to challenge British dominance marked a significant chapter in Bengal’s history.

Impact on Bengal’s Economy, Society, and Politics

• British Influence: Both Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim’s rules saw increasing British influence in Bengal.
• Economic Impact:
  • Mir Jafar paid a significant amount as compensation to the company after the Battle of Plassey.
  • The British East India Company’s dominance led to economic changes, with the company benefiting from trade and tax policies.
• Societal and Political Impact:
  • The betrayal of Siraj ud-Daulah and the subsequent British victories led to a shift in power dynamics.
  • The British East India Company’s increasing control affected the political landscape, leading to the decline of the Mughal Empire’s influence in the region.

Differences and Similarities

• Differences:
  • Mir Jafar sought British support to gain power, while Mir Kasim later resisted British dominance.
  • Mir Jafar is primarily remembered as a traitor, whereas Mir Kasim is remembered for his resistance against the British.
• Similarities:
  • Both had conflicts with the British, leading to significant battles.
  • Their rules marked significant chapters in the history of Bengal, with the British East India Company playing a pivotal role.

X. Conclusion

The significance of the Battle of Buxar in Indian history

• The Battle of Buxar, fought between 22 and 23 October 1764, was a pivotal event in Indian history.
• It marked the end of the Mughal Empire’s political influence.
• The British East India Company emerged as the dominant power in northern India.
• The battle reshaped the political landscape, leading to British dominance in the region.

The changing dynamics of power in Bengal and Northern India

• The battle was fought between the British East India Company and the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Nawab of Bengal; the Nawab of Awadh, Shuja-ud-Daula; and the Mughal Emperor, Shah Alam II.
• The British victory led to the Treaty of Allahabad in 1765.
• The defeated Indian rulers were forced to sign the treaty, granting the East India Company diwani rights.
• This allowed the company to collect revenue and administer Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, giving them immense economic and administrative control.

Reflection on the broader theme of British expansion in India

• The Battle of Buxar and its aftermath played a crucial role in shaping the course of Indian history.
• It set the stage for nearly two centuries of British rule in India.
• The oppressive policies and economic exploitation by the East India Company led to numerous uprisings.
• The most notable revolt was the Sepoy Mutiny of 1857, fueled by growing discontent over British rule.
• The battle solidified British dominance, eroded the authority of Indian rulers, and sowed the seeds of future rebellions.

The Battle of Buxar had profound consequences for colonial India. It not only marked the decline of the Mughal Empire’s influence but also paved the way for the British East India Company to exploit the resources of the region for their benefit. The aftermath of the battle exposed the inherent weaknesses among Indian rulers, and their lack of unity made it easier for the British to establish dominance. This chapter reflects on the broader theme of British expansion in India, highlighting the significant shifts in power dynamics and the eventual establishment of British rule.

Table Charts

Comparison between Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim’s Policies and Administration

Aspect	Mir Jafar	Mir Kasim
Allegiance to British	Loyal to the British, often seen as a puppet ruler.	Initially collaborated but later opposed British policies.
Revenue System	Continued traditional revenue systems.	Introduced reforms to streamline revenue collection.
Military Reforms	Relied heavily on British military support.	Modernized the army, introduced new training and weaponry.
Trade Policies	Favored British trade privileges.	Tried to reduce British trade dominance, leading to conflicts.
Administration	Largely influenced by British directives.	Attempted to establish a more independent administration.
Legacy	Often criticized for betraying Bengal to the British.	Remembered for his resistance against British expansion.

Key Commanders and Their Roles in the Battle of Buxar

Commander	Affiliation	Role in the Battle
Sir Hector Munro	British East India Company	Led the British forces; his disciplined troops and strategic planning played a crucial role in the victory.
Shah Alam II	Mughal Emperor	Allied with the combined forces against the British; however, his role was more symbolic than military.
Najaf Khan	Allied with Mughal Emperor	Played a significant role in rallying troops and leading charges, but faced setbacks during the battle.
Mir Qasim	Former Nawab of Bengal	Key strategist for the combined forces; his enmity with the British was a primary cause for the battle.
Shuja-ud-Daulah	Nawab of Awadh (Oudh)	Contributed a significant portion of the troops for the combined forces; his decisions impacted battle tactics.

Treaty Terms and Their Implications Post-Battle of Buxar

Treaty Terms	Implications
Recognition of the British East India Company’s rights	The British East India Company was formally recognized as a dominant power, solidifying its position in the region.
Payment of war indemnities to the British	Drained the treasuries of the defeated rulers, weakening their financial position and strengthening the British.
Granting of the Diwani rights	The British East India Company gained the right to collect revenues from Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, enhancing its economic control.
Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II placed under British protection	The Mughal Emperor became a puppet ruler, with the real power resting with the British.
Territories ceded to the British	The British territorial holdings expanded significantly, further consolidating their rule.
Military restrictions on defeated rulers	The defeated rulers could not maintain independent armed forces, ensuring British military supremacy in the region.

1. Discuss the factors leading to the strained relationship between Mir Kasim and the British, highlighting the significance of revenue collection disputes and trade privileges. (250 words)
2. Analyze the political scenario in Northern India prior to the Battle of Buxar, emphasizing the roles of the Mughal Empire and the Nawab of Awadh. How did these dynamics influence the battle’s outcome? (250 words)
3. Compare and contrast the policies and administration of Mir Jafar and Mir Kasim. How did their respective approaches impact Bengal’s socio-economic landscape and relations with the British? (250 words)