20.6 Akbar’s Evolution of religious and social outlook, the theory of Sulh-i-kul and religious policy

I. Introduction

Akbar the Great, the third Mughal emperor, is renowned for his religious tolerance, social reforms, and efforts to create a unified and harmonious society. His reign, from 1556 to 1605, was marked by the development of the concept of Sulh-i-kul (Universal Peace) and the establishment of a syncretic religion called Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith). Akbar’s vision of a pluralistic society and his commitment to promoting religious tolerance and inclusivity left a lasting impact on the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent.

II: Akbar’s Early Life and Influences

Childhood and Tutors

• Born on October 15, 1542, in Umarkot, Sindh (now in Pakistan), Akbar was the son of Humayun, the second Mughal emperor, and his wife Hamida Banu Begum.
• His full name was Jalal-ud-din Muhammad Akbar.
• Akbar’s early years were marked by instability, as his father Humayun was exiled from India by the Afghan ruler Sher Shah Suri.
• During his father’s exile, Akbar spent time in various regions, including Persia, where he was exposed to Persian culture and traditions.
• After the death of Sher Shah Suri and the restoration of Humayun to the throne, Akbar returned to India with his family.
• Akbar’s education was supervised by a group of distinguished tutors, including Bairam Khan, a Persian nobleman who later became his regent and chief advisor.
• Other tutors included Abdul Latif, a Persian scholar who taught him literature, and Mir Abdul Aziz, who instructed him in theology and philosophy.
• Akbar’s education was primarily focused on military training, administration, and Islamic studies, but he also developed an interest in other subjects, such as history, poetry, and music.
• Despite his extensive education, Akbar remained illiterate throughout his life, relying on his exceptional memory and the assistance of his advisors to manage the affairs of his empire.

Turko-Mughal Traditions

• The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur, a Timurid prince from Central Asia, who established his rule in India in 1526 after defeating the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, at the Battle of Panipat.
• The Mughals were of Turko-Mongol origin, with their lineage tracing back to the great conquerors Genghis Khan and Timur.
• The Turko-Mughal traditions that influenced Akbar’s upbringing and reign can be broadly categorized into political, military, and cultural aspects.

Political Traditions

• The Mughal political system was based on the concept of divine kingship, where the emperor was considered the representative of God on earth and the ultimate source of authority.
• The empire was organized into a centralized bureaucracy, with the emperor at the top, followed by a hierarchy of officials responsible for various aspects of governance.
• The Mughal administration was characterized by a system of mansabdari, where the emperor granted ranks (mansabs) to his nobles, determining their status, responsibilities, and remuneration.

Military Traditions

• The Mughal military was a combination of cavalry, infantry, and artillery, with a strong emphasis on the use of firearms and siege warfare techniques.
• The Mughal army was organized into a system of ahadis (professional soldiers) and bandagan (slave soldiers), who were loyal to the emperor and served as the backbone of the imperial forces.
• The Mughals also employed a large number of mercenaries and tribal warriors, who were organized into irregular units called qabail.

Cultural Traditions

• The Mughal court was a melting pot of various cultures, including Persian, Central Asian, and Indian influences.
• Persian was the official language of the Mughal court, and Persian literature, art, and architecture had a significant impact on the development of Mughal culture.
• The Mughals were patrons of the arts, and their reign saw the flourishing of painting, music, and poetry, which often reflected the syncretic nature of the empire.
• The Turko-Mughal traditions also influenced Akbar’s religious outlook, as the Mughals were Sunni Muslims who followed the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence.
• However, Akbar’s exposure to various religious and cultural traditions during his early life and reign led him to adopt a more inclusive and tolerant approach to religion, which would become a defining aspect of his rule.

III: The Evolution of Akbar’s Religious Policy

The First Phase (1556-1573)

• Akbar ascended the throne at the age of 13 after the death of his father, Humayun, in 1556.
• During this initial phase, Akbar’s religious policy was primarily influenced by his regent, Bairam Khan, who was a devout Sunni Muslim.
• The young emperor followed traditional Islamic practices and upheld the Sharia law in his empire.
• Akbar continued to patronize Islamic scholars and religious institutions, such as madrasas and mosques.
• He also maintained close ties with the Muslim aristocracy and religious leaders, who played a crucial role in the administration of his empire.
• However, even during this early phase, Akbar showed signs of religious tolerance and inclusivity, as he appointed Hindus to high-ranking positions in his administration and military.
• Akbar’s marriage to Rajput princesses, such as Harkha Bai (also known as Jodha Bai), further strengthened his ties with the Hindu community and demonstrated his willingness to embrace different religious and cultural traditions.

The Second Phase (1573-1581)

• The second phase of Akbar’s religious policy was marked by a significant shift towards greater religious tolerance and inclusivity.
• This change was influenced by his interactions with various religious groups, including Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Christians, as well as his exposure to Sufism and other mystical traditions.
• Akbar began to question the orthodox interpretation of Islam and sought to promote a more inclusive and pluralistic vision of religion.
• In 1575, he established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars and religious leaders from different faiths were invited to engage in debates and discussions.
• Akbar abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) in 1579, which was a significant step towards promoting religious equality and tolerance in his empire.
• He also abolished the pilgrimage tax on Hindu pilgrims, further demonstrating his commitment to religious harmony.

The Third Phase (1581-1605)

• The final phase of Akbar’s religious policy saw the culmination of his efforts to create a unified and harmonious religious order in his empire.
• During this period, Akbar developed the concept of Sulh-i-Kul (Universal Peace), which aimed to promote harmony and tolerance among different religious communities.
• He encouraged interfaith dialogue and patronized scholars, artists, and religious leaders from various faiths, including Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Christians.
• Akbar founded a syncretic religion called Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith) in 1582, which combined elements of Islam, Hinduism, and other faiths in an attempt to create a unified religious and social order.
• Although Din-i-Ilahi had a limited following and did not survive beyond Akbar’s reign, it reflected his desire to promote religious harmony and social unity in his empire.
• Akbar’s religious policy during this phase was not without opposition, as some orthodox Muslim groups criticized his tolerance and syncretism, accusing him of heresy and apostasy.
• However, Akbar’s commitment to religious harmony and his efforts to create a pluralistic society left a lasting legacy on the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent.

IV: The Theory of Sulh-i-kul

Origins and Principles

• Sulh-i-kul is a Persian term that translates to “universal peace” or “peace with all.”
• The concept of Sulh-i-kul was developed by Akbar the Great during the later stages of his reign as part of his efforts to promote religious tolerance and harmony in his empire.
• The origins of Sulh-i-kul can be traced back to Akbar’s exposure to various religious and cultural traditions, including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Christianity, as well as his interactions with Sufi mystics and other spiritual leaders.
• The principles of Sulh-i-kul were based on the idea that all religions share a common essence and that their differences should be respected and celebrated rather than used as a source of conflict and division.
• Sulh-i-kul aimed to create a pluralistic society where people from different religious and cultural backgrounds could coexist peacefully and contribute to the overall prosperity and well-being of the empire.
• Akbar believed that the emperor, as the representative of God on earth, had a responsibility to ensure the welfare of all his subjects, regardless of their religious or cultural affiliations.

Implementation and Impact

• Akbar implemented the principles of Sulh-i-kul through a series of administrative, legal, and social reforms that aimed to promote religious tolerance and harmony in his empire.
• He abolished the jizya (a tax on non-Muslims) and the pilgrimage tax on Hindu pilgrims, which were significant steps towards promoting religious equality and reducing discrimination against non-Muslims.
• Akbar encouraged interfaith dialogue and patronized scholars, artists, and religious leaders from various faiths, including Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Christians, as well as Muslims.
• He established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars and religious leaders from different faiths were invited to engage in debates and discussions on religious and philosophical matters.
• Akbar’s court was a melting pot of different cultures and traditions, and he actively promoted the exchange of ideas and the synthesis of various art forms, such as painting, music, and literature.
• The impact of Sulh-i-kul on the Mughal Empire and Indian society was significant, as it fostered a climate of religious tolerance and cultural exchange that contributed to the empire’s stability and prosperity.
• The legacy of Sulh-i-kul can be seen in the continued influence of its principles on later Mughal rulers, as well as its relevance in contemporary discussions on religious tolerance and pluralism.

V: Religious Tolerance and Harmony

Abolition of the Pilgrimage Tax

• The pilgrimage tax was a levy imposed on Hindu pilgrims who visited sacred sites within the Mughal Empire.
• This tax was seen as discriminatory and a burden on the non-Muslim population, as it restricted their freedom to practice their religion and visit their holy places.
• Akbar, in his pursuit of religious tolerance and harmony, abolished the pilgrimage tax in 1563.
• The abolition of the pilgrimage tax was a significant step towards promoting religious equality and reducing discrimination against non-Muslims in the Mughal Empire.
• This decision demonstrated Akbar’s commitment to the principles of Sulh-i-kul and his desire to create a pluralistic society where people from different religious and cultural backgrounds could coexist peacefully.
• The abolition of the pilgrimage tax also helped to improve relations between the Mughal Empire and the Hindu population, as it removed a major source of resentment and tension between the two communities.

Encouragement of Interfaith Dialogue

• Akbar believed that the key to achieving religious tolerance and harmony was through open dialogue and the exchange of ideas between different religious groups.
• He actively encouraged interfaith dialogue by inviting scholars, religious leaders, and philosophers from various faiths to participate in debates and discussions at his court.
• In 1575, Akbar established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, which served as a platform for interfaith dialogue and the exchange of religious and philosophical ideas.
• The Ibadat Khana hosted scholars and religious leaders from different faiths, including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Christianity, as well as representatives of various sects and schools of thought within these religions.
• These debates and discussions helped to foster a climate of mutual understanding and respect among the different religious communities in the Mughal Empire.
• Akbar’s encouragement of interfaith dialogue also contributed to the development of a syncretic culture in his empire, as it facilitated the exchange of ideas and the blending of various artistic, literary, and philosophical traditions.

VI: Din-i-Ilahi

Foundation and Principles

• Din-i-Ilahi, which translates to “Divine Faith,” was a syncretic religion founded by Akbar the Great in 1582.
• The establishment of Din-i-Ilahi was a culmination of Akbar’s efforts to promote religious tolerance and harmony in his empire, as well as his desire to create a unified religious and social order.
• Din-i-Ilahi was not intended to replace existing religions but rather to serve as a unifying force that combined elements of various faiths, including Islam, Hinduism, Zoroastrianism, and Christianity.
• The principles of Din-i-Ilahi were based on the idea that all religions share a common essence and that their differences should be respected and celebrated rather than used as a source of conflict and division.
• Some of the key tenets of Din-i-Ilahi included the belief in a single God, the rejection of idolatry, the promotion of ethical values such as truthfulness and compassion, and the importance of prayer and meditation.
• Din-i-Ilahi also emphasized the role of the emperor as the spiritual leader and guide of his subjects, reflecting Akbar’s belief in the concept of divine kingship.

Influence and Legacy

• The influence of Din-i-Ilahi during Akbar’s reign was limited, as it had a small number of followers, most of whom were members of the Mughal court and administration.
• Despite its limited following, Din-i-Ilahi played a significant role in shaping the religious and cultural landscape of the Mughal Empire, as it promoted the exchange of ideas and the synthesis of various artistic, literary, and philosophical traditions.
• The principles of Din-i-Ilahi also influenced the development of a syncretic culture in the Mughal Empire, which was characterized by the blending of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian influences.
• The legacy of Din-i-Ilahi can be seen in the continued influence of its principles on later Mughal rulers, as well as its relevance in contemporary discussions on religious tolerance and pluralism.
• Although Din-i-Ilahi did not survive beyond Akbar’s reign, its impact on the promotion of religious harmony and social unity in the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent remains significant.

VII: Akbar’s Social Reforms

Marriage Policies and Diplomatic Alliances

• Akbar’s marriage policies played a significant role in promoting social harmony and strengthening diplomatic alliances within the Mughal Empire.
• He married several Rajput princesses, such as Harkha Bai (also known as Jodha Bai), which helped to forge strong ties with the Rajput kingdoms and integrate them into the Mughal administration.
• These marriages also facilitated cultural exchange between the Mughal court and the Rajput kingdoms, contributing to the development of a syncretic culture that combined elements of Persian, Central Asian, and Indian traditions.
• Akbar’s marriage policies were not limited to Rajput princesses, as he also married women from various other communities and regions, reflecting his inclusive and tolerant approach to religion and culture.

Promotion of Education

• Akbar recognized the importance of education in promoting social harmony and progress, and he took several measures to improve access to education for the people of his empire.
• He established a number of schools and educational institutions throughout the Mughal Empire, which provided instruction in various subjects, including religious studies, literature, history, and the arts.
• Akbar also patronized scholars, poets, and artists from different religious and cultural backgrounds, encouraging the exchange of ideas and the development of a vibrant intellectual and cultural life in his empire.

Abolition of Sati and Encouragement of Widow Remarriage

• Akbar took steps to address social issues that affected the well-being of his subjects, particularly women.
• He abolished the practice of sati, a Hindu custom in which a widow would immolate herself on her husband’s funeral pyre. This practice was considered inhumane and detrimental to the welfare of women.
• Akbar also encouraged widow remarriage, which was often discouraged or prohibited in traditional Indian society. By promoting widow remarriage, Akbar sought to improve the social status and well-being of widows in his empire.

Promotion of Art and Culture

• Akbar was a great patron of art and culture, and his reign saw the flourishing of various forms of artistic expression, including painting, music, and literature.
• He established workshops and ateliers for artists and craftsmen, who were encouraged to develop their skills and create works that reflected the diverse religious and cultural traditions of the Mughal Empire.
• Akbar’s patronage of art and culture not only enriched the cultural life of his empire but also served as a means of promoting social harmony and unity among the diverse communities within the empire.

VIII: Comparison with Other Mughal Rulers on Religious Policy

Babur

• Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire, was a Sunni Muslim who followed the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence.
• His religious policy was primarily focused on establishing and consolidating his rule in India, rather than promoting religious tolerance or harmony.
• Babur did not engage in any significant efforts to promote interfaith dialogue or accommodate the religious and cultural diversity of his empire.

Humayun

• Humayun, Akbar’s father and the second Mughal emperor, was also a Sunni Muslim who adhered to the Hanafi school of Islamic jurisprudence.
• Like Babur, Humayun’s religious policy was primarily focused on consolidating his rule and maintaining the stability of his empire.
• However, Humayun showed some signs of religious tolerance, as he allowed Hindu temples to be built and patronized Hindu scholars and artists.

Jahangir

• Jahangir, Akbar’s son and successor, continued his father’s policy of religious tolerance and inclusivity.
• He maintained close ties with the Sikh community and allowed the construction of Sikh temples, such as the Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar.
• Jahangir also engaged in interfaith dialogue and patronized scholars and religious leaders from various faiths, including Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Christians.

Shah Jahan

• Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor, is best known for his architectural achievements, such as the construction of the Taj Mahal.
• His religious policy was generally tolerant and inclusive, although he did not actively promote interfaith dialogue or engage in significant efforts to promote religious harmony.
• Shah Jahan maintained close ties with the Muslim aristocracy and religious leaders, and he continued to patronize Islamic scholars and institutions.

Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb, the sixth Mughal emperor, is often considered the most controversial figure in terms of religious policy among the Mughal rulers.
• Unlike his predecessors, Aurangzeb pursued a more orthodox and conservative approach to Islam, which led to a decline in religious tolerance and harmony in his empire.
• He reimposed the jizya (tax on non-Muslims) and destroyed several Hindu temples, which led to widespread resentment and unrest among the non-Muslim population.
• Aurangzeb’s religious policy is often contrasted with Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-kul, as it marked a significant departure from the principles of religious tolerance and inclusivity that had characterized the Mughal Empire under Akbar’s rule.

IX: Influence of Sufism on Akbar’s Policies

Sufism: An Overview

• Sufism is a mystical and spiritual dimension of Islam that emphasizes the direct experience of God through personal devotion, meditation, and self-purification.
• Sufism has played a significant role in the spread of Islam in various parts of the world, including the Indian subcontinent.
• Sufi saints, known as pirs or sheikhs, established religious centers called khanqahs or dargahs, where they taught their disciples and followers the principles of Sufism and provided spiritual guidance.
• Sufism promotes the values of love, compassion, tolerance, and universal brotherhood, which often transcended religious and cultural boundaries.

Akbar’s Exposure to Sufism

• Akbar was exposed to Sufism during his early life and reign, as he came into contact with various Sufi saints and mystics who visited his court or lived in the Mughal Empire.
• Some of the prominent Sufi saints who influenced Akbar’s religious outlook included Shaikh Salim Chishti, a revered Sufi saint of the Chishti order, and Mian Mir, a Sufi saint of the Qadiri order.
• Akbar’s interactions with these Sufi saints and his exposure to their teachings and practices had a profound impact on his religious policy and his approach to governance.

Influence of Sufism on Akbar’s Religious Policy

• The principles of Sufism, such as love, compassion, tolerance, and universal brotherhood, resonated with Akbar’s vision of a harmonious and inclusive society.
• Sufism’s emphasis on the direct experience of God and the rejection of religious dogma and orthodoxy appealed to Akbar, who was critical of the rigid interpretation of Islam by some orthodox Muslim groups.
• The influence of Sufism can be seen in Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-kul (Universal Peace), which aimed to promote harmony and tolerance among different religious communities within the empire.
• Akbar’s establishment of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars and religious leaders from different faiths were invited to engage in debates and discussions, also reflected the Sufi emphasis on dialogue and the exchange of ideas.
• The syncretic religion founded by Akbar, Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), incorporated elements of Sufism, such as the belief in a single God, the importance of prayer and meditation, and the promotion of ethical values.

Impact of Sufism on Akbar’s Rule

• The influence of Sufism on Akbar’s religious policy and governance contributed to the stability and prosperity of the Mughal Empire, as it fostered a climate of religious tolerance and cultural exchange.
• Akbar’s patronage of Sufi saints and institutions helped to strengthen the spiritual and moral foundations of his empire, as well as to promote social cohesion and unity among the diverse religious and cultural communities within the empire.
• The legacy of Sufism’s influence on Akbar’s policies can be seen in the continued relevance of its principles in contemporary discussions on religious tolerance and pluralism.

X: Akbar’s Relationship with the Muslim Aristocracy

Association with the Muslim Aristocracy

• As a Mughal emperor, Akbar maintained close ties with the Muslim aristocracy, who played a crucial role in the administration and governance of his empire.
• The Muslim aristocracy, also known as the umara or nobles, were a diverse group of individuals who held high-ranking positions in the Mughal administration, military, and religious institutions.
• Many of these nobles were of Persian or Central Asian origin, and they brought with them their own cultural and religious traditions, which influenced the Mughal court and society.
• Akbar’s association with the Muslim aristocracy was not only a matter of political necessity but also a reflection of his inclusive and tolerant approach to religion and culture.
• He appointed Muslim nobles to key positions in his administration and military, and he also patronized Islamic scholars and religious institutions, such as madrasas and mosques.

Control over Mullahs

• Mullahs are Islamic religious leaders who are responsible for providing religious guidance and education to the Muslim community.
• In the context of the Mughal Empire, mullahs played an important role in maintaining the religious and moral order of society, as well as in advising the emperor on matters of Islamic law and jurisprudence.
• Akbar recognized the importance of maintaining control over the mullahs, as their influence and authority could potentially challenge his own rule and undermine the stability of his empire.
• To ensure the loyalty and compliance of the mullahs, Akbar adopted a policy of patronage and supervision, which involved providing financial support and other incentives to the religious leaders in exchange for their allegiance to the emperor.
• Akbar also sought to regulate the activities of the mullahs by establishing a centralized religious bureaucracy, known as the Sadr-us-Sudur, which was responsible for overseeing the appointment and dismissal of religious leaders, as well as for monitoring their conduct and performance.
• By maintaining control over the mullahs, Akbar was able to ensure the smooth functioning of his religious policy and to promote the principles of religious tolerance and harmony within his empire.

XI: Interactions with Other Religions

Debates with Hindus, Sikhs, Jains, and Christians

• Akbar’s religious policy was characterized by a genuine interest in understanding and engaging with various religious traditions, including Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Christianity.
• He believed that open dialogue and the exchange of ideas between different religious groups were essential for promoting religious tolerance and harmony in his empire.
• Akbar invited scholars, religious leaders, and philosophers from various faiths to participate in debates and discussions at his court, which served as a platform for interfaith dialogue and the exchange of religious and philosophical ideas.
• In 1575, Akbar established the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) in Fatehpur Sikri, where scholars and religious leaders from different faiths were invited to engage in debates and discussions on religious and philosophical matters.
• These debates and discussions helped to foster a climate of mutual understanding and respect among the different religious communities in the Mughal Empire and contributed to the promotion of religious tolerance and harmony.

Influence of Jesuit Missionaries

• In addition to his interactions with Hindu, Sikh, and Jain scholars and religious leaders, Akbar also engaged with Christian missionaries, particularly the Jesuits, who arrived in India during the 16th century.
• The Jesuit missionaries were members of the Society of Jesus, a Catholic religious order founded by St. Ignatius of Loyola in 1540, which was dedicated to the propagation of the Christian faith and the establishment of educational institutions.
• Akbar invited Jesuit missionaries to his court and allowed them to preach Christianity and establish churches within the Mughal Empire.
• The Jesuit missionaries, such as Rodolfo Acquaviva and Antonio Monserrate, played a significant role in introducing Akbar to Christian theology, philosophy, and art, which influenced his religious outlook and his approach to governance.
• The influence of Jesuit missionaries can be seen in Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance and his efforts to promote interfaith dialogue and the exchange of ideas between different religious groups.
• Although Akbar did not convert to Christianity, his interactions with the Jesuit missionaries and his exposure to their teachings and practices contributed to the development of a more inclusive and tolerant vision of religion, which was reflected in his policy of Sulh-i-kul and the establishment of the syncretic religion Din-i-Ilahi.

XIII: Criticisms and Controversies

Opposition from Orthodox Groups

• Despite Akbar’s efforts to promote religious tolerance and harmony in the Mughal Empire, his policies faced opposition from certain orthodox Muslim groups.
• These groups, which included conservative scholars, religious leaders, and members of the Muslim aristocracy, were critical of Akbar’s inclusive approach to religion and his attempts to engage with non-Muslim faiths.
• They accused Akbar of deviating from the teachings of Islam and undermining the authority of the Sharia law by promoting religious syncretism and accommodating non-Muslim practices and beliefs.
• Some of the most vocal critics of Akbar’s religious policies were the Ulama, a group of Islamic scholars and jurists who were responsible for interpreting and implementing Islamic law in the Mughal Empire.
• The Ulama were particularly critical of Akbar’s establishment of the Ibadat Khana, which they saw as a platform for promoting heretical ideas and undermining the authority of Islam.
• They also opposed the abolition of the jizya and the pilgrimage tax, as well as Akbar’s patronage of non-Muslim scholars, artists, and religious leaders.
• Despite this opposition, Akbar remained committed to his policy of Sulh-i-kul and continued to promote religious tolerance and harmony in his empire.

Limitations of Akbar’s Religious Policies

• While Akbar’s religious policies were largely successful in promoting religious tolerance and harmony in the Mughal Empire, they were not without their limitations.
• One of the main limitations of Akbar’s policies was their reliance on the emperor’s personal authority and patronage, which made them vulnerable to changes in the political and religious climate of the empire.
• This vulnerability became apparent during the reign of Aurangzeb, who pursued a more orthodox and conservative approach to Islam and reversed many of Akbar’s policies, leading to a decline in religious tolerance and harmony in the Mughal Empire.
• Another limitation of Akbar’s religious policies was their inability to completely eliminate religious discrimination and prejudice within the empire, as some orthodox Muslim groups continued to resist his efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity.
• Additionally, Akbar’s syncretic religion, Din-i-Ilahi, had a limited following and did not survive beyond his reign, which suggests that his efforts to create a unified religious and social order were not entirely successful.
• Despite these limitations, Akbar’s religious policies left a lasting legacy on the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent, as they contributed to the promotion of religious tolerance and the development of a syncretic culture that embraced the diverse religious and cultural traditions of India.

XIV: Legacy of Akbar’s Religious Policies

Influence on Later Mughal Rulers

• Akbar’s religious policies, particularly his emphasis on religious tolerance and inclusivity, had a lasting impact on the Mughal Empire and its subsequent rulers.
• His son and successor, Jahangir, continued Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance and inclusivity, maintaining close ties with various religious communities and engaging in interfaith dialogue.
• Shah Jahan, the fifth Mughal emperor, also followed a generally tolerant and inclusive religious policy, although he did not actively promote interfaith dialogue or engage in significant efforts to promote religious harmony.
• However, the legacy of Akbar’s religious policies was challenged during the reign of Aurangzeb, who pursued a more orthodox and conservative approach to Islam, leading to a decline in religious tolerance and harmony in the Mughal Empire.
• Despite the setbacks during Aurangzeb’s reign, the principles of religious tolerance and inclusivity promoted by Akbar continued to influence the Mughal Empire and its rulers, contributing to the stability and prosperity of the empire.

Relevance in Contemporary Society

• The legacy of Akbar’s religious policies remains relevant in contemporary society, as the principles of religious tolerance and inclusivity promoted by Akbar continue to resonate in discussions on religious harmony and pluralism.
• Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-kul (Universal Peace) serves as a model for promoting religious tolerance and harmony in a diverse and multicultural society, as it emphasizes the importance of respecting and celebrating the differences between various religious and cultural traditions.
• The establishment of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) and Akbar’s efforts to engage in interfaith dialogue can also serve as an inspiration for contemporary efforts to promote dialogue and understanding between different religious communities.
• In a world characterized by increasing religious and cultural diversity, the legacy of Akbar’s religious policies serves as a reminder of the importance of promoting religious tolerance and inclusivity in order to foster social cohesion and unity.

XV: Views of Historians on Akbar’s Policies

Divergent Interpretations

• The religious policies of Akbar the Great have been a subject of extensive study and debate among historians, resulting in a range of divergent interpretations.
• Some historians view Akbar as a visionary ruler who sought to create a harmonious and inclusive society by promoting religious tolerance and inclusivity.
• These historians argue that Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-kul (Universal Peace) and his efforts to engage in interfaith dialogue were groundbreaking initiatives that contributed to the stability and prosperity of the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent.
• On the other hand, some historians argue that Akbar’s religious policies were primarily driven by political considerations and that his efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity were limited in scope and impact.
• These historians contend that Akbar’s policy of religious tolerance was primarily aimed at consolidating his rule and maintaining the loyalty of the diverse religious and cultural communities within his empire, rather than promoting genuine religious harmony and understanding.
• Some historians also criticize Akbar’s syncretic religion, Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith), as an unsuccessful attempt to create a unified religious and social order, arguing that it had a limited following and did not survive beyond his reign.

Assessment of Akbar’s Contributions

• Despite the divergent interpretations of Akbar’s religious policies, most historians agree that his efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity had a significant impact on the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent.
• Akbar’s policy of Sulh-i-kul and his efforts to engage in interfaith dialogue contributed to the promotion of religious tolerance and harmony in his empire, fostering a climate of mutual understanding and respect among the diverse religious communities.
• His abolition of the jizya and the pilgrimage tax, as well as his patronage of scholars, artists, and religious leaders from various faiths, further demonstrated his commitment to religious equality and inclusivity.
• Akbar’s religious policies also had a lasting impact on the Mughal Empire’s later rulers, as they continued to influence the empire’s approach to religious tolerance and inclusivity, contributing to its stability and prosperity.
• In conclusion, while the views of historians on Akbar’s religious policies may differ, there is a general consensus that his efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity had a significant impact on the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent, leaving a lasting legacy that continues to resonate in contemporary discussions on religious harmony and pluralism.

XVI: Conclusion – Akbar’s Vision of a Pluralistic Society

• Akbar the Great, the third Mughal emperor, ruled India from 1556 to 1605 and is remembered for his religious tolerance, social reforms, and efforts to create a unified and harmonious society.
• His vision of a pluralistic society was shaped by his exposure to various religious and cultural traditions, including Islam, Hinduism, Sikhism, Jainism, and Christianity, as well as his interactions with Sufi mystics and other spiritual leaders.
• Akbar’s religious policy, which evolved throughout his reign, culminated in the concept of Sulh-i-kul (Universal Peace), which aimed to promote harmony and tolerance among different religious communities within the empire.
• His efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity included the abolition of the jizya and the pilgrimage tax, the establishment of the Ibadat Khana (House of Worship) for interfaith dialogue, and the founding of the syncretic religion Din-i-Ilahi (Divine Faith).
• Akbar’s social reforms, such as the centralization of power and the improvements in revenue assessment and collection, contributed to the stability and prosperity of the Mughal Empire and laid the foundation for its continued success and expansion under his successors.
• The legacy of Akbar’s religious policies can be seen in the continued influence of the principles of Sulh-i-kul on later Mughal rulers, as well as in contemporary discussions on religious tolerance and pluralism.
• Despite facing opposition from orthodox groups and having certain limitations, Akbar’s efforts to promote religious tolerance and harmony in the Mughal Empire left a lasting impact on the Indian subcontinent, fostering a climate of mutual understanding and respect among the diverse religious and cultural communities.

In conclusion, Akbar’s vision of a pluralistic society, characterized by religious tolerance, inclusivity, and harmony, played a crucial role in shaping the Mughal Empire and the Indian subcontinent. His efforts to promote religious tolerance and inclusivity, combined with his social reforms, contributed to the stability and prosperity of the empire and left a lasting legacy that continues to resonate in contemporary discussions on religious harmony and pluralism.

1. To what extent did Akbar’s interactions with various religious groups and his exposure to Sufism contribute to the development of his policy of Sulh-i-kul? (250 words)
2. Analyze the role of Akbar’s marriage policies in promoting social harmony and strengthening diplomatic alliances within the Mughal Empire. (250 words)
3. Compare and contrast the religious policies of Akbar and Aurangzeb, focusing on their impact on religious tolerance and harmony in the Mughal Empire. (250 words)
4. Assess the effectiveness of Akbar’s social reforms, such as the abolition of sati and the promotion of widow remarriage, in improving the well-being of women in the Mughal Empire. (250 words)
5. Evaluate the impact of Akbar’s patronage of art and culture on the promotion of social harmony and unity among the diverse communities within the Mughal Empire. (250 words)