21.5 Late Seventeenth-century crisis and the revolts

I. Introduction

The economic and social structure during the Mughal rule

• Mughal society followed a pyramidal structure with the emperor at the top, followed by nobility, and then the middle class, which was mainly composed of traders and merchants.
• The economy of the Mughal Empire was large and prosperous, with India producing about 25% of the world’s industrial output up until the 18th century.
• The Mughals built an extensive road system, created a uniform currency, and unified the country.
• The main source of the empire’s wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.

Factors contributing to the late seventeenth-century crisis

• The decline of the Mughal Empire in the eighteenth century was attributed to several factors.
• Repeated challenges to Mughal authority by Jat zamindars and peasants in the Mathura-Agra region, Sikh movements in Punjab, and weakening support from Rajput chiefs contributed to the erosion of imperial power.
• The breakdown of the mansabdari administrative system and challenges from newly established regional rulers also played a role in the decline.
• Increasing burden of taxation and consequent zamindar-peasant rebellions throughout the empire were considered fundamental causes of decline.

II. Aurangzeb’s Reign and Policies

Aurangzeb’s controversial policies

• Aurangzeb was the sixth Mughal emperor, ruling from 1658 to 1707.
• He is often considered the last effective Mughal ruler.
• Aurangzeb’s policies were controversial due to his religious orthodoxy and treatment of non-Muslim subjects.
• He reimposed the jizyah tax on non-Muslims and enforced religious, social, and legal disabilities on them.
• Aurangzeb forbade the construction of new Hindu temples and the repair of old ones, and ordered the demolition of Hindu schools and temples.

Impact on the Mughal Empire’s stability

• Aurangzeb’s religious policies damaged the stability of the Mughal Empire, which had previously been based on noninterference with religious beliefs and customs, and fostering friendly relations between Hindus and Muslims.
• His policies led to widespread resentment and rebellion against the Mughals, which fragmented their kingdom and greatly weakened their rule.
• The empire experienced further growth under Aurangzeb but also manifested signs of weakness.

Economic consequences of Aurangzeb’s rule

• During Aurangzeb’s reign, the economy of the Mughal Empire began to decline.
• The heavy taxes he levied impoverished the farming population.
• There was a steady decay in the quality of Mughal government, and later emperors showed little desire to govern or invest in agriculture, technology, or the military.
• Some emperors even discouraged economic prosperity, fearing the wealthy might raise their own armies.

III. Peasant Rebellions and Uprisings

The Satnami Revolt (1672)

• The Satnami revolt was a major peasant uprising that took place in 1672 during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Satnamis were a sect of Hinduism, primarily composed of lower-caste artisans and agricultural laborers.
• The revolt began in the region of Narnaul in present-day Haryana, India.
• The Satnami sect was founded by a saint named Birbhan, who preached a monotheistic faith and advocated for social equality.
• The Satnamis were subjected to oppressive taxes and discriminatory policies under Aurangzeb’s rule, which led to widespread discontent among the sect.
• The immediate cause of the revolt was the mistreatment of a Satnami by a Mughal official, which sparked widespread anger among the Satnamis.
• The Satnami rebels initially achieved some military successes against Mughal forces, but they were eventually defeated by a larger Mughal army.
• The revolt was significant because it demonstrated the growing unrest among the lower classes and the weakening of Mughal authority.
• The Satnami revolt was one of several peasant uprisings during Aurangzeb’s reign, which contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Jat Rebellion (1669)

• The Jat rebellion was a significant peasant uprising that occurred in 1669 during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Jats were a predominantly agricultural community residing in the region of present-day Haryana, Uttar Pradesh, and Rajasthan in India.
• The Jat rebellion was primarily a response to the oppressive policies of Aurangzeb, including heavy taxation and religious discrimination against non-Muslims.
• The rebellion began in the Mathura-Agra region and was led by a Jat chieftain named Gokula.
• Gokula united various Jat clans and led a revolt against the Mughal administration, attacking Mughal officials and plundering their wealth.
• The Mughal forces, led by the governor of Agra, eventually suppressed the rebellion and captured Gokula, who was subsequently executed.
• The Jat rebellion was significant because it demonstrated the growing discontent among the peasantry and the weakening of Mughal authority.
• The Jat rebellion was one of several peasant uprisings during Aurangzeb’s reign, which contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Yusufzai Pashtun Revolt (1667)

• The Yusufzai Pashtun revolt was a significant uprising that took place in 1667 during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Yusufzai Pashtuns were a tribal group residing in the region of present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
• The revolt was primarily a response to the oppressive policies of Aurangzeb, including heavy taxation, forced conversions to Islam, and the imposition of Mughal authority over the tribal regions.
• The Yusufzai Pashtuns, known for their warrior culture and strong resistance to external rule, fiercely opposed the Mughal administration.
• The rebellion was led by a Yusufzai chieftain named Pir Sabir Shah, who united various Pashtun tribes against the Mughal forces.
• The Yusufzai Pashtun rebels engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Mughal army, attacking Mughal outposts and supply lines.
• The Mughal forces, led by the governor of Kabul, eventually managed to suppress the rebellion, but the Yusufzai Pashtuns continued to resist Mughal rule in the following years.
• The Yusufzai Pashtun revolt was significant because it demonstrated the growing discontent among the tribal groups and the weakening of Mughal authority in the frontier regions.
• The Yusufzai Pashtun revolt was one of several uprisings during Aurangzeb’s reign, which contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

The Afridi Pashtun Revolt

• The Afridi Pashtun revolt was a significant uprising that occurred during the reign of Mughal Emperor Aurangzeb.
• The Afridi Pashtuns were a tribal group residing in the region of present-day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan and eastern Afghanistan.
• The revolt was primarily a response to the oppressive policies of Aurangzeb, including heavy taxation, forced conversions to Islam, and the imposition of Mughal authority over the tribal regions.
• The Afridi Pashtuns, known for their warrior culture and strong resistance to external rule, fiercely opposed the Mughal administration.
• The rebellion was led by various Afridi chieftains who united the Afridi Pashtun tribes against the Mughal forces.
• The Afridi Pashtun rebels engaged in guerrilla warfare against the Mughal army, attacking Mughal outposts and supply lines.
• The Mughal forces eventually managed to suppress the rebellion, but the Afridi Pashtuns continued to resist Mughal rule in the following years.
• The Afridi Pashtun revolt was significant because it demonstrated the growing discontent among the tribal groups and the weakening of Mughal authority in the frontier regions.
• The Afridi Pashtun revolt was one of several uprisings during Aurangzeb’s reign, which contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire.

IV. The Role of Climate Change and Famine

The ‘Little Ice Age’ and its effects on India

• The ‘Little Ice Age’ was a period of global cooling that occurred between the 14th and 19th centuries.
• The cooling had significant effects on India, as it coincided with the Mughal rule (1526-1715).
• The ‘Little Ice Age’ is associated with poor monsoon rainfall, which likely caused severe droughts and famines during the Mughal Empire.
• The droughts and famines during this period had a profound impact on the socio-economic development of India.

Famine and its impact on peasant rebellions

• Famines in India resulted in more than 30 million deaths over the course of the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries.
• Famines were often caused by the aftereffects and damage of wars and rebellions throughout the Mughal dynasty.
• The severe droughts and famines during the ‘Little Ice Age’ contributed to the increase in peasant rebellions, as they led to widespread crop failures and mass mortality events.
• The Mughal administration’s inability to effectively respond to these climate-induced crises further exacerbated the situation and fueled peasant uprisings.

The Mughal administration’s response to climate change and famine

• The Mughal administration’s response to climate change and famine was often inadequate and ineffective.
• During severe famines, cultivators became vulnerable to starvation despite the widespread practice of storing large quantities of grain.
• The Mughal state never fully controlled the seasonal military labor market, which further contributed to the vulnerability of the population during times of famine.
• The history of famine relief in India under the Mughal rule demonstrates the need for a more effective and proactive approach to addressing the challenges posed by climate change and famine.

V. The Decline of the Mansabdari System

The Jagirdari Crisis

• The Mansabdari system was a unique administrative and military system introduced by the Mughal Emperor Akbar in the 16th century.
• The system involved the assignment of land (jagirs) to Mansabdars (military officers) in exchange for their military service and loyalty to the Mughal Empire.
• The jagirdari crisis emerged during the later years of the Mughal Empire, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb.
• The crisis was characterized by a shortage of jagirs, leading to the inability of the Mughal administration to provide adequate land grants to the growing number of Mansabdars.
• The jagirdari crisis was a result of several factors, including the expansion of the Mughal Empire, the increasing number of Mansabdars, and the decline in the empire’s revenue.

Insecurity of Tenure and its Consequences

• The insecurity of tenure in the Mansabdari system was a significant factor contributing to its decline.
• Mansabdars were frequently transferred from one jagir to another, which led to a lack of attachment to the land and its people.
• This insecurity of tenure discouraged Mansabdars from investing in the development of their jagirs, as they were uncertain about the duration of their tenure.
• The frequent transfers also disrupted the local administration and revenue collection, leading to a decline in the overall efficiency of the Mughal administration.
• The insecurity of tenure further contributed to the weakening of the loyalty of Mansabdars to the Mughal Empire, as they became more focused on their personal interests and survival.

The Weakening of the Mughal Administration

• The decline of the Mansabdari system played a crucial role in the weakening of the Mughal administration.
• The jagirdari crisis and the insecurity of tenure led to a decline in the efficiency and effectiveness of the Mughal administration, as the Mansabdars became less committed to their duties and responsibilities.
• The weakening of the Mughal administration further contributed to the decline of the Mughal Empire, as it led to a loss of control over the vast territories and the emergence of regional powers.
• The decline of the Mansabdari system also resulted in the erosion of the Mughal military power, as the Mansabdars were the primary source of military manpower and resources for the empire.

VI. The Rise of Regional Powers

The weakening of the central Mughal authority

• The decline of the Mughal Empire was marked by the weakening of the central Mughal authority, which began during the reign of Aurangzeb.
• Factors contributing to the weakening of the central authority included the decline of the Mansabdari system, the jagirdari crisis, and the insecurity of tenure.
• The Mughal administration’s inability to effectively respond to climate-induced crises, such as droughts and famines, further exacerbated the situation.
• The growing discontent among the peasantry and the tribal groups led to a series of rebellions and uprisings, which further weakened the Mughal authority.

Emergence of regional powers and their impact on the Mughal Empire

• As the central Mughal authority weakened, several regional powers emerged, asserting their independence and challenging the Mughal rule.
• Some of the prominent regional powers that emerged during the decline of the Mughal Empire included the Marathas, the Sikhs, the Rajputs, and the Nawabs of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad.
• The rise of these regional powers further fragmented the Mughal Empire and accelerated its decline.
• The regional powers often engaged in conflicts with the Mughal administration and each other, which further destabilized the empire.

The role of the Rajput chiefs in the decline of the Mughal Empire

• The Rajput chiefs played a significant role in the decline of the Mughal Empire.
• The Rajputs were a warrior caste, who had been integrated into the Mughal administration as Mansabdars and military commanders.
• During the reign of Aurangzeb, the Rajput chiefs became increasingly discontented with the Mughal rule due to the emperor’s religious orthodoxy and discriminatory policies against non-Muslims.
• The Rajput chiefs gradually withdrew their support from the Mughal administration and began asserting their independence.
• The loss of support from the Rajput chiefs further weakened the Mughal authority and contributed to the decline of the empire.

VII. The Economic Decline of the Mughal Empire

The impact of continuous wars on the Mughal treasury

• The Mughal Empire was involved in numerous wars and military campaigns throughout its existence, particularly during the reign of Aurangzeb.
• Continuous wars drained the Mughal treasury, as they required significant financial resources for the maintenance of the army, payment of soldiers, and procurement of weapons and supplies.
• The depletion of the treasury led to an increase in taxes on the peasantry, which further contributed to the decline of the agricultural sector and the overall economy.

The decline of the agricultural sector

• Agriculture was the backbone of the Mughal economy, providing the majority of the empire’s revenue through land taxes.
• The decline of the agricultural sector during the later years of the Mughal Empire was a result of several factors, including the impact of continuous wars, oppressive taxation, and climate-induced crises such as droughts and famines.
• The decline in agricultural productivity led to a decrease in the empire’s revenue, further weakening the Mughal administration and its ability to maintain control over its vast territories.

The weakening of the Mughal trade and industry

• The Mughal Empire was known for its thriving trade and industry, which contributed significantly to its economic prosperity.
• During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the trade and industry sectors also experienced a downturn, due to factors such as the loss of territory, the decline of the agricultural sector, and the weakening of the Mughal administration.
• The loss of territory meant that the Mughals lost control over important trade routes and ports, which negatively impacted their trade relations with other countries.
• The decline of the Mughal trade and industry further exacerbated the economic decline of the empire, as it led to a decrease in revenue and a weakening of the Mughal administration.

VIII. The Mughal Empire’s Response to the Crisis

Attempts at reform and centralization

• As the Mughal Empire faced a multitude of crises, including economic decline, the weakening of the Mansabdari system, and the rise of regional powers, various attempts were made to reform and centralize the administration.
• Some Mughal emperors, such as Aurangzeb, tried to strengthen the central authority by implementing stricter control over the provinces and increasing the power of the central government.
• However, these attempts at centralization often proved counterproductive, as they further alienated regional powers and contributed to the fragmentation of the empire.
• Other reform efforts included attempts to improve the efficiency of the tax collection system, the promotion of trade and industry, and the introduction of new agricultural technologies.
• Despite these efforts, the Mughal Empire was unable to effectively address the various crises it faced, which ultimately led to its decline.

The role of the Mughal emperors in addressing the crisis

• The Mughal emperors played a crucial role in addressing the crisis faced by the empire, as they were responsible for implementing reforms and making key decisions.
• Some emperors, such as Aurangzeb, were more proactive in addressing the crisis, while others were less effective in their efforts.
• The effectiveness of the Mughal emperors in addressing the crisis was often limited by factors such as the decline of the Mansabdari system, the rise of regional powers, and the weakening of the central authority.
• The inability of the Mughal emperors to effectively address the crisis contributed to the decline of the empire, as it led to a loss of control over the vast territories and the emergence of regional powers.

The long-term consequences of the crisis on the Mughal Empire

• The crisis faced by the Mughal Empire had long-term consequences, which ultimately led to its decline and disintegration.
• The economic decline of the empire resulted in a decrease in revenue, which further weakened the Mughal administration and its ability to maintain control over its vast territories.
• The decline of the Mansabdari system and the rise of regional powers contributed to the fragmentation of the empire, as various regions asserted their independence and challenged the Mughal rule.
• The long-term consequences of the crisis also included the erosion of the Mughal military power, as the Mansabdars were the primary source of military manpower and resources for the empire.
• The decline of the Mughal Empire paved the way for the rise of new regional powers, such as the Marathas, the Sikhs, and the Nawabs of Bengal, Awadh, and Hyderabad, which further shaped the political landscape of India.

X. Conclusion

In conclusion, the decline of the Mughal Empire was a result of various factors, including the weakening of the central Mughal authority, the rise of regional powers, the decline of the Mansabdari system, and the impact of continuous wars on the Mughal treasury. The empire’s inability to effectively address climate-induced crises, such as droughts and famines, further exacerbated the situation. Despite attempts at reform and centralization, the Mughal Empire was unable to recover, ultimately leading to its disintegration and the rise of new regional powers in India.

1. Analyze the impact of Aurangzeb’s religious policies on the stability of the Mughal Empire and the rise of regional powers. (250 words)
2. Discuss the role of climate change, specifically the ‘Little Ice Age,’ in contributing to the decline of the Mughal Empire and the emergence of peasant rebellions. (250 words)
3. Compare and contrast the Mansabdari system with the feudal system in Europe, focusing on their respective roles in the decline of the Mughal Empire and the European feudal states. (250 words)
4. Evaluate the effectiveness of the Mughal administration’s response to the various crises faced by the empire, including economic decline, the weakening of the Mansabdari system, and the rise of regional powers. (250 words)
5. Assess the role of the Rajput chiefs in the decline of the Mughal Empire and compare their impact with that of the Marathas and the Sikhs on the weakening of the Mughal rule. (250 words)