22.1 Population in Mughal India

I. Introduction

• Studying the population of Mughal India helps us understand the social, economic, and political dynamics of the time.
• The Mughal Empire was a significant period in South Asian history, with its legacy seen in cultural contributions such as centralized imperial rule, the amalgamation of Persian art and literature with Indian art, and the development of Mughlai cuisine.
• The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty ruling over a majority Hindu population, which makes the study of population dynamics during this period essential for understanding religious and cultural interactions.
• Analyzing the population of Mughal India can also provide insights into the empire’s administrative organization, economic policies, and social structure.

II. Population Estimates and Distribution in Mughal India

Population Size and Growth

• The Indian population was about 100 million in 1500.
• Under the Mughal Empire, the population rose to 160 million in 1700.
• By 1800, the population rose to 185 million.
• Mughal India had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centers.
• The population growth during the Mughal era was faster than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era.

Regional Distribution of Population

• The geographical distribution of the subcontinent’s population in 1595 was similar to that of the later periods.
• The Mughal Empire’s urban population was up to 17 million people by 1600, larger than the urban population in Europe at the time.
• By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India’s urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.
• Nizamuddin Ahmad reported that, under Akbar’s reign, Mughal India had 120 large cities and 3,200 small towns (qasbas), each controlling 100 to 1,000 villages.

Urban and Rural Population

• The majority of the Mughal Empire’s population lived in rural areas.
• Urban centers in Mughal India were characterized by a rural-urban continuum, with a notable feature of urbanization during the Mughal period being the diversity of urban economies.
• Many urban centers grew around military garrisons, providing food, goods, and services to them.
• The establishment of imperial factories by Akbar also attracted urbanization, as hundreds of workers were employed in these factories.

III. Social Structure in Mughal India

The Pyramid Structure of Mughal Society

• Mughal society followed a pyramidal structure, with the emperor at the top, followed by the nobility, the middle class, and the lower class.
• The social structure was influenced by factors such as wealth, privileges, and financial stability.

The Emperor and Nobility

• The emperor and the nobility were the most privileged social and economic class in Mughal India.
• The Mughal ruling class was multi-racial, multi-religious, and multi-regional.
• Mughal nobles received extremely high salaries and enjoyed a luxurious lifestyle.
• The Mughal nobility consisted of civil bureaucrats and military commanders, who held mansabs and received salaries either in cash or through the assignment of the revenue of various territories (jagirs).

The Middle Class

• The middle class in Mughal India was a new development, taking up jobs such as merchants, industrialists, and other professions.
• They did not have the extravagant lives of the rich and noble but led a comfortable and somewhat sensible life.
• Middle-class families were able to send their children to schools and could afford some pleasures, such as rich food and expensive clothing.

The Lower Class

• The majority of the Mughal Empire’s population belonged to the lower class, which included the poor, slaves, and others.
• People in the lower classes were cultivators, artisans, small traders, shopkeepers, household servants, and slaves.
• Lower-class individuals faced challenges such as frequent famines, which affected peasants and village artisans.
• The caste system in Mughal India began to loosen, and low-caste Hindus were influenced by the principle of Millat of Islam, leading to a new era in the social sphere.

IV. Urbanization and Urban Centers in Mughal India

Factors Contributing to Urbanization

• The third urbanization of India began with the Turko-Afghans, leading to the establishment of a stable center and a uniform provincial government.
• The relative peace and security during the Mughal rule encouraged the growth of trade and commerce, which in turn encouraged the growth of urban centers.
• Mughal India had a large urban population, and the towns and cities performed varied and overlapping roles.
• The development of major urban centers in Mughal India was influenced by factors such as political stability, economic prosperity, and cultural transformation.
• Many urban centers grew around military garrisons, providing food, goods, and services to them.
• The establishment of imperial factories by Akbar also attracted urbanization, as hundreds of workers were employed in these factories.

Major Urban Centers in Mughal India

• Some of the main urban centers during the Mughal period were Agra, Delhi, Lahore, Multan, Thatta, and Srinagar in the north; Ahmedabad, Surat, Ujjain, and Patna in the west; and Sonargoan, Hoogli, Patliputra, Chittagong, and Murshidabad in the east.
• According to Akbar’s census records, his empire had 120 large cities and 3,200 small towns (qasbas), each controlling 100 to 1,000 villages.

Characteristics of Urban Centers

• Mughal cities were characterized by their well-planned layouts and infrastructure, with cities divided into different zones such as the royal palace and administrative center, the commercial and industrial zone, and the residential zone.
• Mughal architecture incorporated Hindu elements with Persian and Islamic elements, resulting in a unique blend of styles.
• Urban centers in Mughal India were often developed near major roads, such as the Grand Trunk Road, or near non-metalled roads.
• Many urban centers in Mughal India were characterized by a rural-urban continuum, with a notable feature of urbanization during the Mughal period being the diversity of urban economies.
• Mughal cities were not always peaceful and harmonious, with conflicts sometimes arising between different religious and ethnic groups, as well as between the ruling elite and the general population.

V. Economy and its Impact on Population in Mughal India

Agricultural Production

• Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire.
• A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo, and opium.
• By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators began to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.
• Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe.
• The average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity.
• Indian peasants were quick to adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650.

Textile Manufacturing

• One of the largest industries under the Mughal patronage was the textile industry.
• Mughal India had a thriving manufacturing industry, producing a massive quantity of hand-loom textiles.
• The primary fabrics of India were cotton, linen, and silks.
• The Mughals enriched their styles with luxurious silks not just locally sourced but also imported from other regions.

Trade and Commerce

• During the Mughal period, India had fairly developed commerce.
• Trade grew at the local, regional, and inter-regional levels as well as trade relations with other countries.
• Land routes were used to maintain commercial relations, and the arrival of European trading companies such as the Portuguese, British, Dutch, and French increased trading activity in the Indian subcontinent.
• Rice, textiles, tobacco, and metals were some of the items exported by the empire.
• Common imports included spices, sugar, oil, horses, and textiles from Asian countries.
• The Mughals introduced silver rupees of high purity, which became a standard coin in India and abroad and that helped in the growth of India’s trade.

Economic Disparity and its Effect on Population

• Around 1750, the Mughal nobility and zamindars accounted for 1% of India’s population and 15% of the total income.
• Mughal rule was characterized by the ruthless exploitation of the primary producers, namely, the artisans and the peasants.
• There was a clear disparity between the rich and the poor during the inherently exploitative Mughal regime.
• The Mughals and their mansabdars kept a humongous 33%-50% of the entire GDP for themselves.
• Climate change and rebellion in Mughal India: Famine and rebellion seem to go hand-in-hand, with the intensity of peasant rebellions increasing substantially between 1630-1680 compared to 1555-1630.

VI. Religious and Cultural Composition of Mughal Society

Religious Tolerance and Integration

• The Mughal Empire was known for its religious tolerance and integration.
• The Mughals were Muslims who ruled a country with a large Hindu majority.
• During most of their era of dominance, Mughal rule was generally tolerant of all religions in the region.
• The Mughal rulers, such as Akbar, promoted religious tolerance and mutual respect between different religious communities.

Hindu and Muslim Population

• In 1500, the Indian population was about 100 million, with Muslims making up a minority.
• Under the Mughal Empire, the population rose to 160 million in 1700, with Muslims averaging only about 15% of the population.
• The majority of the population in Mughal India was Hindu.
• The Mughal Empire’s ruling class was multi-racial, multi-religious, and multi-regional.

Influence of Religion on Society and Culture

• The Mughal Empire had a significant impact on the religious and cultural landscape of India.
• Mughal architecture incorporated Hindu elements with Persian and Islamic elements, resulting in a unique blend of styles.
• The Mughal society was like a pyramid, with the emperor and nobility at the top, followed by the middle class and the lower class.
• The Indian society under the Mughals was divided on the basis of religion and wealth, but the local people did adapt to the Mughal culture and traditions.
• The Mughal Empire’s religious policies and tolerance played a crucial role in shaping the religious and cultural composition of Mughal society.

VII. Administration and Governance of Mughal India

Impact of Administration on Population

• The Mughal Empire was known for its centralized administration and efficient governance.
• The Mughal emperors were despotic rulers who relied upon and held sway over a large number of ruling elites.
• The administration of the Mughal Empire had a significant impact on the population, as it provided a stable environment for economic growth and urbanization.

Taxation System and its Effect on the Population

• The main base of the empire’s collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar.
• These taxes amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator and were paid in the well-regulated silver currency.
• The taxation system had a negative impact on the population, as it led to the impoverishment of the farming population.
• The heavy taxes levied by Aurangzeb, including the reimposition of the jizyah, steadily impoverished the farming population.

Land Revenue System and its Effect on the Population

• The land revenue system was a major source of income for the Mughal Empire.
• The Mughal land revenue system was designed to extract the whole surplus, leaving the peasants impoverished.
• The Indian peasantry was vulnerable to the exploitation of moneylenders and middlemen due to the British land revenue system.
• The loss of land and the right to farm led to unemployment and forced many people to switch from food crops to cash crops.

VIII. Challenges and Limitations in Studying Population in Mughal India

Lack of Demographic Data

• One of the major challenges in studying the population of Mughal India is the lack of demographic data.
• No census was ever conducted in the Mughal Empire, so any estimate can be made only on the basis of other data.
• The Indian population statistics properly begin only with the census of 1872, leaving a gap in knowledge about the population during the Mughal era.

Reliability of Historical Sources

• The reliability of historical sources is another challenge in studying the population of Mughal India.
• The Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl is one of the richest sources of data for studying the population of Mughal India, but it may not be entirely accurate or comprehensive.
• Nizamuddin Ahmad reported that under Akbar’s reign, Mughal India had 120 large cities and 3,200 small towns (qasbas), each controlling 100 to 1,000 villages. However, this information may not be entirely reliable, as it is based on a single source.

Estimations and Assumptions

• Estimations and assumptions are often used to study the population of Mughal India, which can lead to inaccuracies.
• Moreland made the first attempt to estimate the population with the help of the data from the Ain-i-Akbari. However, his estimate was based on the extent of cultivated area, assuming that the total area of cultivation in 1601 was 50 to 55 per cent of what it was in 1901.
• Another set of assumptions for estimating the population includes the yield per unit of area, area of land cultivated per capita, and crop distribution remaining the same between 1601 and 1891, yielding a population of 149.07 million for India in 1601. These assumptions may not be entirely accurate, leading to potential errors in population estimates.

IX. Conclusion

Significance of Studying Population in Mughal India

• Studying the population of Mughal India is essential for understanding the historical, social, economic, and cultural context of the Indian subcontinent during this period.
• The population dynamics of Mughal India provide insights into the urbanization, economic growth, and social structure of the empire.
• Analyzing the population of Mughal India helps to understand the impact of the Mughal administration, governance, and religious policies on the people living in the empire.
• The study of population in Mughal India contributes to the broader understanding of demographic trends and patterns in world history.

Contributions of Mughal India to the Understanding of Population Dynamics

• Mughal India offers a unique case study of population dynamics in a pre-modern empire, characterized by a high degree of urbanization and a diverse population.
• The population growth during the Mughal era was faster than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era, providing valuable insights into the factors that contributed to this growth.
• The religious and cultural composition of Mughal society, as well as the administration and governance of the empire, had significant impacts on the population, offering lessons on the interplay between political, social, and economic factors in shaping population dynamics.
• Despite the challenges and limitations in studying the population of Mughal India, the available data and historical sources provide a rich foundation for further research and analysis, contributing to a better understanding of the complex dynamics of population in pre-modern societies.

1. Examine the factors that contributed to the urbanization of Mughal India and its impact on the growth of major urban centers. (250 words)
2. Discuss the religious tolerance and integration in the Mughal Empire, highlighting the significance of the Hindu and Muslim populations during the Mughal period. (250 words)
3. Analyze the agricultural production in Mughal India and the influence of the Mughal land revenue system on the farming population. (250 words)
4. Explore the challenges and limitations in studying the population of Mughal India, focusing on the lack of demographic data and the reliability of historical sources. (250 words)
5. Explain the impact of the Mughal administration on the population of India, particularly in terms of providing a stable environment for economic growth and urbanization. (250 words)