22.9 Condition of Women in Mughal India

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Indian society was characterized by patriarchal norms and gender-based disparities, with women facing numerous challenges and limited opportunities. However, amidst these constraints, some remarkable women emerged as influential figures in politics, cultural patronage, and economic activities. Their contributions and resilience continue to inspire and shape the narrative of women’s roles and empowerment in history.

1: Family Life and Social Structure

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in India, the social structure and family life were deeply influenced by patriarchal traditions. The family system, particularly the joint family, played a central role in domestic life. Here are some of the broad features of the family system during this period:

1. Patriarchal Family System

• In most parts of India, the family system was mainly patriarchal in character.
• The senior male member, often the father or the eldest male, was the head of the family.
• Individual property rights were not recognized within the family. Members only had a right of maintenance from the family’s property.
• Women members were generally subject to the dictates of the male members of the family.

2. Gender Preference

• Families gave distinct preference to male children over female children. Sons were preferred to daughters, and among the sons, the first-born was favored.

3. Mutual Dependence and Joint Relationship

• The family system fostered a sense of mutual dependence and joint relationships among its members.
• Members of the joint family relied on each other’s help to navigate life’s challenges.

4. Disparities Among Classes

• Upper-class women and working-class women experienced vastly different lives within the family system.
• Upper-class women were generally educated and lived lives of luxury, often confined to the haram and sharing their husbands with multiple wives and mistresses.

2: Role of Women in Politics

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, some exceptional women played active roles in politics and administration. One notable figure was Nur Jahan, whose influence on the Mughal court was significant:

1. Nur Jahan – “Light of the World”

• Nur Jahan’s childhood name was Mehru-un-Nisa, and she was the daughter of a Mughal noble, Mirza Ghias Beg.
• In 1611 A.D., she married Jahangir, the Mughal Emperor, and was bestowed the title “Nur Jahan,” which translates to “Light of the World.”

2. Influence in Politics and Administration

• Nur Jahan became an influential figure in the politics of her time, and Jahangir increasingly came under her influence.
• Her name, along with Jahangir’s, was engraved on coins, and royal edicts were also issued in her name.
• Gradually, Jahangir entrusted the reins of the government to her, and she demonstrated competent and able administration.
• She was praised for her frugal living and wise management, which resulted in significant savings in the expenditure of the Royal palace.

3. Abuse of Power and Favouritism

• As Nur Jahan’s influence grew, she began to misuse her powers to strengthen her position.
• She arranged the marriage of her daughter, Ladli Begum (from her previous marriage with Sher Afghan), to Jahangir’s son, Shahryar, with the intention of making him the successor instead of Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan).
• She appointed her relatives to high posts in the government, leading to allegations of favoritism.

4. Bravery and Courage

• Nur Jahan was known for her bravery and courage. She accompanied Jahangir on hunting expeditions.
• During the revolt of Mahabat Khan in 1626, she was captured along with Jahangir but managed to organize an escape and raise an army to counter the rebels.

5. Interest in Art and Architecture

• Nur Jahan was an educated woman with a keen interest in arts and culture.
• She had a taste for music, painting, and poetry, and she composed poetry in Persian.
• Many scholars and artists received her patronage during her time in power.
• She also had an interest in architecture and built the tomb of her father, Itmad-ud-Daulah, as well as a tomb for herself in Lahore.

6. Kind-heartedness and Philanthropy

• Nur Jahan showed kindness and compassion by arranging the marriages of orphaned and destitute girls at her private expense.

7. Decline and Legacy

• When Shah Jahan became the Mughal Emperor in 1628, Nur Jahan was forced into confinement, and her influence in politics waned.
• She died in 1645, leaving behind a legacy of a powerful and influential woman who made a significant impact on the Mughal court.

3: Social Problems and Challenges Faced by Women

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, women in India faced various social problems and challenges due to the prevailing patriarchal norms and harmful practices. Let’s explore some of these issues:

1. Harmful Social Practices

• Child marriage was a common social practice during this period, which led to early marriages for both boys and girls.
• Forced marriages were also prevalent, where individuals had little or no choice in their marital decisions.
• Denial of a share in parental property was a significant issue for women, as they were often excluded from inheritance rights.

2. Sati – The Practice of Widow Immolation

• Sati was a controversial and tragic practice where widows were expected to self-immolate on their husband’s funeral pyre.
• While there were some attempts by the Mughal rulers to regulate Sati, it persisted in many regions, particularly among the Rajput community.
• The practice was often influenced by the desire to increase the ruler’s honor, leading to instances where common law wives and maids were made to commit Sati.

3. Attempts at Reform

• Emperor Akbar attempted to bring some reforms, such as fixing a minimum age for marriage and giving girls the freedom to marry by choice rather than under parental pressure.
• However, these reforms were often disregarded, and traditional customs continued to prevail in society.

4. Social and Economic Disparities

• Working women in various fields received lower wages than their male counterparts. For example, in Kota, women working in the fields received lower wages than men.
• Women from lower socio-economic backgrounds faced harsh working conditions, often engaging in labor-intensive tasks like spinning, pottery, and embroidery.

5. Petitions to Village Panchayats

• Women from Western India, including Rajasthan, Gujarat, and Maharashtra, sent petitions to the village panchayats seeking justice and redressal of grievances.
• These petitions often revolved around issues like infidelity of husbands, neglect of wives and children by male household heads, and matters related to family disputes.

6. Women’s Role in Production

• Women played vital roles in various artisanal tasks, such as spinning yarn, pottery, and embroidery.
• The production process often required men and women to work together in fields and households.
• Women’s importance as child bearers in an agrarian society led to specific customs and practices in rural communities.

7. Marriage and Remarriage

• Marriages in rural communities often involved the payment of bride-price to the bride’s family, rather than dowry.
• Remarriage was considered legitimate for both divorced and widowed women, providing them with some degree of autonomy.

4: Women and Property Rights

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, women’s property rights were influenced by societal norms and religious beliefs. Let’s explore the status of women regarding property ownership during this period:

1. Property Inheritance

• In the Mughal society, property inheritance was typically determined based on escheat, where the ruler distributed the deceased noble’s property according to his preferences among his sons.
• There are limited references to daughters of nobles receiving a share of the property, but such laws may have been enforced by the courts for other Muslims.

2. Property Rights among Landed Gentry

• Among some landed gentry, women had the right to inherit property.
• Instances from the Punjab show that women, including widows, actively participated in the rural land market as sellers of the property inherited by them.
• Hindu and Muslim women inherited zamindaris (land holdings), which they were free to sell or mortgage.

3. Women Zamindars

• In eighteenth-century Bengal, women zamindars (landowners) were known to hold significant positions.
• One of the most prominent examples is the zamindari of Rajshahi, which was managed by a woman.

4. Property Control under Patriarchal Norms

• Despite some instances of property rights for women, patriarchal norms often limited their control over property.
• The household was generally headed by a male, and women were kept under strict control by male family members and the community.
• Draconian punishments were sometimes inflicted if women were suspected of infidelity or disobedience.

5. Gendered Division of Labor

• Women’s contributions to agriculture and artisanal tasks were essential for the household’s survival.
• Women and men worked together in fields, with men tilling and plowing while women sowed, weeded, threshed, and winnowed the harvest.

6. Gender Biases in Social Norms

• Some social norms barred menstruating women from specific activities, such as touching the plow or entering certain areas in Bengal and western India.

7. Remarriage and Widows

• Remarriage was relatively common among both divorced and widowed women in rural communities.
• The importance of women as child-bearers in society meant that remarriage was often viewed as a legitimate option.

5: Life of Common Women and Labor

The life of common women during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was characterized by hard work, economic challenges, and significant contributions to various economic activities. Let’s delve deeper into their roles and labor during this period:

1. Economic Contributions

• Common women played a crucial role in the economic activities of their households and communities.
• They engaged in various artisanal tasks, such as spinning yarn, sifting and kneading clay for pottery, and embroidery, which were vital for local production.

2. Wage Disparities

• Working women often received lower wages than men for their labor.
• For example, in Kota, official records indicated that women working in the fields received lower wages than men.

3. Women’s Participation in the Labor Market

• Peasant and artisan women not only worked in the fields but also went to the houses of their employers or to the markets if necessary.
• Some women engaged in migrant labor, traveling from neighboring villages to work at construction sites.

4. References in Paintings

• Paintings from the era offer glimpses into the lives of women workers. Some paintings depict women carrying heavy loads, while others show them crushing stones for the construction of buildings like Fatehpur Sikri.
• Women spinning thread was a common scene in many paintings.

5. Gendered Division of Labor

• Men and women had to work together in the fields, with men performing tasks like tilling and plowing, while women handled sowing, weeding, threshing, and winnowing.
• The growth of nucleated villages and individual peasant farming led to a more inclusive labor model, blurring the lines between “home” (women’s domain) and “world” (men’s domain).

6. Women in Agriculture

• Women played a vital role in agricultural activities, and their contributions were essential to a society dependent on labor.
• At the same time, high mortality rates among women due to malnutrition, frequent pregnancies, and childbirth posed challenges, leading to a shortage of wives and unique social customs.

7. Social Customs and Remarriage

• In many rural communities, remarriage was considered legitimate for both divorced and widowed women.
• The fear of losing control over women as reproductive resources led to specific customs and practices distinct from those of elite groups.

6: Women and Cultural Patronage

Women during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries had significant influence on the cultural and artistic aspects of society. Despite their limited roles in public life, they played a crucial role in giving moral and cultural tone to the society from behind the curtains. Let’s explore their contributions in cultural patronage:

1. Influence on Royal Taste and Patronage

• Women in positions of power, such as queens and royal family members, had considerable influence on the royal taste and patronage of arts and culture.
• They played a role in promoting and supporting artists, singers, poets, and scholars at the Mughal court.

2. Literary Contributions

• Some women were accomplished writers and poets, leaving behind literary works as part of their legacy.
• Jahanara, the daughter of Shah Jahan, was known for her literary prowess and wrote under the pen-name “Makhfi” (concealed).
• Roshanara, another notable figure, set up a literary atelier (bait-ul-ulum) in Delhi during her time.

3. Cultural Tastes and Architectural Endeavors

• Women of the royal court often developed refined tastes in music, painting, poetry, and architecture.
• Nur Jahan, for example, had an interest in architecture and built the tomb of her father, Itmad-ud-Daulah, and a tomb for herself in Lahore.

4. Arts and Patronage in Society

• Women extended their patronage beyond the royal court, supporting artists, musicians, and scholars in their local communities.
• Their support helped in nurturing cultural and artistic expressions in various regions.

5. Encouragement of Artisans

• Women of wealth and influence encouraged artisans to create intricate and beautiful works of art, textiles, and crafts.
• They provided employment and opportunities to artisans, contributing to the preservation of traditional art forms.

6. Social and Cultural Networking

• Women played an essential role in connecting artists, scholars, and intellectuals, fostering a network that facilitated the exchange of ideas and creativity.

7. Legacy and Recognition

• Despite often working behind the scenes, the contributions of these influential women have been recognized by historians and scholars through their writings and artistic endeavors.

7: Challenges and Progress in Women’s Status

While women during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries faced numerous challenges and societal constraints, there were also instances of progress and empowerment. Let’s explore the dual aspects of women’s status during this period:

1. Challenges Faced by Women

• Women’s rights and autonomy were limited due to the prevailing patriarchal norms and societal expectations.
• Harmful social practices like child marriage and Sati persisted, denying women their right to choose their life partners and their agency over their own lives.
• Despite some attempts at reform, traditional customs often overshadowed progressive measures, resulting in the perpetuation of discriminatory practices.
• Working-class women faced economic hardships, receiving lower wages than men for their labor.
• Women’s role in agriculture and artisanal tasks was essential, but they often worked under the control and supervision of male employers or craftsmen.

2. Progress and Empowerment

• Some exceptional women, such as Nur Jahan, broke the barriers of traditional gender roles and held influential positions in politics and administration.
• Women of wealth and influence played an active role in promoting arts, culture, and education, leaving behind a cultural legacy.
• Instances of women inheriting property and participating in the rural land market demonstrated their agency and economic contributions.
• Remarriage was considered legitimate, providing some degree of choice and independence to divorced and widowed women.

3. Cultural and Artistic Contributions

• Women’s involvement in cultural patronage led to the flourishing of arts, literature, and music in Mughal society.
• Some women, like Jahanara, were accomplished writers and poets, contributing to the literary landscape.

4. Role Models for Empowerment

• Women like Nur Jahan and Chand Bibi served as role models, proving that women could be capable leaders and administrators.

5. Resistance and Agency

• Despite societal constraints, women demonstrated resilience and agency, seeking redressal through petitions to village panchayats.
• Their involvement in economic activities contributed significantly to their households’ well-being.

6. Women’s Contributions to Agricultural Labor

• Women’s participation in agricultural labor was vital for the sustenance of rural communities.

7. Evolving Social Norms

• Attempts at reform, such as Akbar’s efforts to fix minimum marriage ages, signaled an evolving understanding of women’s rights and agency.

8: Legacy and Impact

The legacy of women in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries goes beyond the constraints of their time. Their contributions, struggles, and achievements have had a lasting impact on society, culture, and women’s empowerment. Let’s explore the enduring legacy of these remarkable women:

1. Inspiring Future Generations

• The stories of powerful women like Nur Jahan, Chand Bibi, and Jahanara serve as inspiration for future generations of women. They demonstrate that women can be leaders, administrators, and patrons of the arts, breaking stereotypes and paving the way for gender equality.

2. Cultural Heritage

• The patronage extended by women to art, literature, and music during the Mughal era has left an indelible mark on India’s cultural heritage. Their support nurtured artistic expressions, contributing to the rich tapestry of Indian culture.

3. Challenging Gender Norms

• Through their actions and achievements, these women challenged traditional gender norms and pushed the boundaries of what was deemed acceptable for women in their time.

4. Recognition of Women’s Agency

• Despite societal limitations, women actively participated in economic activities and played vital roles in their households and communities. Their agency and contributions to the workforce have been recognized and celebrated.

5. Progress in Women’s Rights

• The attempts at reform and the existence of women with significant power in the political sphere laid the groundwork for progress in women’s rights in the centuries that followed.

6. Preserving Women’s Stories

• The historical accounts of these women’s lives provide valuable insights into the challenges and opportunities faced by women during the Mughal era. Their stories have been preserved and serve as a reminder of the resilience and strength of women throughout history.

7. Advocacy for Women’s Empowerment

• The achievements of these exceptional women serve as a testament to the capabilities of women and have been used as arguments in advocacy for women’s empowerment and equal rights.

8. Bridging the Gender Gap

• The accomplishments of women like Nur Jahan, who held significant power and influence in the Mughal court, challenged the perception that leadership roles were reserved only for men.

9. Building Inclusive Narratives

• Recognizing the contributions of women in politics, administration, and culture during the Mughal era helps build more inclusive narratives of history.

10. Impact on Art and Architecture

• Women’s involvement in cultural patronage influenced the arts and architecture of the Mughal period, leaving a lasting imprint on the artistic landscape of the time.

The legacy of women in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries stands as a testament to their resilience, intelligence, and agency. Their stories continue to inspire and remind us of the importance of recognizing and celebrating women’s contributions to society. As we reflect on their lives, we must strive to create a more equitable and empowering world for women today and in the future.

1. Examine the role of women like Nur Jahan and Chand Bibi in Mughal politics and their influence on royal decision-making. (250 words)
2. Discuss the challenges faced by women in inheriting property during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries in India. Highlight instances of women’s land ownership and their economic contributions. (250 words)
3. Analyze the impact of influential women in promoting arts, literature, and music during the Mughal era. How did their patronage shape India’s cultural heritage? (250 words)