3.2 From diarchy to direct control

I. Introduction

Background of the Dual System

• The Dual System, also known as the Diarchy, was introduced by Robert Clive in 1765 after the Battle of Buxar.
• This system was unique in that it divided the functions of the state into two distinct categories: the Company’s control over revenue and the Indian rulers’ control over administration.
• The East India Company was granted the Diwani, or the right to collect revenues, from the provinces of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa.
• The local rulers or Nawabs, on the other hand, were responsible for maintaining law and order, but without the corresponding control over the revenues.

The Issues it Posed for Governance

• Revenue Collection and Administration Mismatch: The biggest problem was that while the East India Company had control over the revenue, it had no direct control over administration and law enforcement. This created mismatched incentives and responsibilities.
• Corruption: The system created ample opportunities for corrupt practices. Revenue officials sometimes colluded with local strongmen to embezzle funds.
• Neglect of Administration: Without direct access to revenue, many Nawabs found it challenging to maintain effective governance or provide basic services.
• Decrease in Authority of Nawabs: The Nawabs saw a decline in their authority and power, leading to internal strife and dissatisfaction among the local elite.
• Economic Strain: The high revenue demands by the East India Company led to economic strain on the provinces, with famines becoming a regular occurrence, particularly the Great Bengal Famine of 1770.

The Need for Reforms in the Administrative Structure

• Desire for Greater Control: The complications arising from the Dual System made it clear to the British that a more direct system of governance was required.
• Financial Stability: The revenue instability under the Dual System was detrimental to the Company’s interests. There was a need for a more streamlined and stable revenue collection system.
• Need for Effective Law and Order: The increasing unrest and dissatisfaction among the locals required a more effective and uniform system of law and order.
• Company’s Global Ambitions: As the East India Company expanded its territories, there was a greater need for uniform governance to ensure effective control.

A Glimpse into the Aftermath of the Dual System

• The issues and challenges posed by the Dual System led to the abolition of the Diarchy in 1772 under Warren Hastings.
• The abolition marked the beginning of the British’s direct rule in India, setting the stage for a series of administrative and legislative reforms.
• The shift from diarchy to direct rule also marked a significant change in the power dynamics between the British and the Indian rulers.
• Direct rule meant the end of the nominal power the Nawabs held, further consolidating British authority in the region.
• The new administrative structure paved the way for a more integrated and centralized form of governance, which would play a significant role in shaping India’s colonial history in the decades to come.

II. Historical Background Leading to the Abolition

Failure of the Dual System (Diarchy)

• The Dual System, known as Diarchy, was a governance approach where revenue collection was handled by the East India Company while administration and law enforcement remained under Indian rulers.
• The Diwani rights in 1765 allowed the Company to control the revenue of provinces like Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa without handling administrative intricacies.
• As time progressed, the inherent discrepancies of the system became evident.
  • The mismatch between revenue control and administrative responsibility led to a lack of accountability and transparency.
  • Frequent economic crises, including the Great Bengal Famine of 1770, were attributed to the Company’s excessive revenue demands and lack of administrative oversight.
  • There were also reports of corruption and malpractice, as local officials and the Company’s representatives often found ways to exploit the system’s loopholes.

Rising Dissatisfaction Among the British

• The British stakeholders, including the British Parliament and shareholders of the East India Company, grew concerned over the declining profitability and increasing unrest in India.
• The Company’s global standing was at risk, given its significant investments and interests in India.
• The inefficiencies of the Dual System were becoming a reputational risk for the Company, often discussed in British circles.
• There was a growing consensus that a more direct approach to governance in India was essential to safeguard British interests and maintain economic stability.

Administrative Complications

• Complex dual authority: The Dual System led to a situation where two centers of power existed, leading to regular disputes and jurisdictional ambiguities.
• Inefficiency in administration: The Nawabs, despite their administrative role, lacked adequate funds as the revenue went directly to the Company. This led to an underfunded and weak administrative structure.
• Misaligned interests: While the Company focused on maximizing revenue, the Nawabs aimed to ensure social stability and welfare, leading to contrasting objectives.
• Increasing bureaucracy: To navigate the complexities of the Dual System, more intermediaries and officials were introduced, making governance cumbersome and less agile.

Unrest Among Local Rulers and Populace

• The Nawabs and local rulers found themselves stripped of real power, merely reduced to figureheads with administrative responsibilities but without the resources to execute them effectively.
• The high revenue demands of the Company resulted in increased taxation, leading to dissatisfaction and unrest among the local populace.
• Peasant revolts and uprisings became more frequent, as the agrarian community was the hardest hit due to the excessive tax demands.
• The traditional Indian elite, including landlords and local chieftains, felt sidelined, leading to a sense of alienation and consequent opposition to the Company’s rule.
• The Great Bengal Famine, where millions perished, was seen by many as a direct result of the Company’s policies under the Dual System, further intensifying the local dissent.

III. Warren Hastings and His Vision for Governance

Early years and experience in India

• Born on December 6, 1732, in Churchill, Oxfordshire.
• An orphan, raised by his uncle, Howard Hastings.
• Came to India in 1750 as a clerk for the East India Company.
• Rapid rise through the ranks due to diligence and dedication.
• By 1758, became a member of the Council of Fort William.
• Played a vital role during the Battle of Plassey in 1757.
• Experience gave him a nuanced understanding of Indian politics, culture, and economy.

His perspective on the Dual System

• Critical about the system since its inception.
• Saw it as a cumbersome administrative model.
• Concerned about the inefficiencies and discrepancies it brought.
• Disliked the shared power structure, preferring a direct approach.
• Advocated for greater company control over revenue and administration.
• Voiced concerns about Nawabs being reduced to mere figureheads.
• Believed the system allowed corruption and mismanagement to thrive.

Challenges he faced as the Governor of Bengal

• Appointed as the Governor of Bengal in 1772.
• Dealt with aftermath of Great Bengal Famine.
• Frequent disputes between East India Company officials and local Indian rulers.
• Increasing revolts and uprisings due to exploitative revenue collection.
• Administrative inefficiencies due to Dual System complexities.
• Balanced interests of the British stakeholders with those of the Indian populace.
• Worked to consolidate British control amidst these challenges.

Vision for centralized and direct control

• Aimed to streamline the administrative processes.
• Sought to dismantle parts of the Dual System.
• Introduced Regulating Act of 1773, initiating central control over the company’s affairs.
• Envisioned a governance model where company had direct control over revenue and law.
• Pushed for reforms that increased efficiency, reduced corruption, and ensured fairness.
• Advocated for a balance between British and Indian interests.
• Emphasized the need to understand and respect Indian traditions while administering.
• Laid groundwork for future administrative reforms that leaned towards centralization.

IV. The Process of Abolition

The official announcement and its reasons

• The Dual System of governance, established in 1765, had its share of complexities and challenges.
• Officially abolished in 1772.
• Warren Hastings, Governor of Bengal, played a vital role in the transition towards direct governance.
• Reasons for abolition:
  • Inefficiencies: The Dual System allowed for shared power, leading to delays and lack of clarity in decision-making.
  • Corruption: Power dynamics between the East India Company and the Nawabs led to rampant misuse of power and resources.
  • Revenue Collection: The Dual System failed to ensure a consistent revenue inflow, hampering economic stability.
  • Rising Dissatisfaction: Both the British stakeholders and the Indian populace were increasingly disillusioned with the system’s complications.
  • Administrative Complications: Shared power led to ambiguities in administrative roles and responsibilities.

Role of the East India Company’s directors

• The directors of the East India Company held significant sway over policy decisions in India.
• They were pivotal in the decision to dismantle the Dual System.
• Concerned about:
  • Dwindling profits due to administrative complexities.
  • Potential loss of control over Indian territories and resources.
  • Growing unrest and dissatisfaction among local Indian rulers and populace.
• Recognized the need for a streamlined system to ensure profitability and control.

Transition from dual governance to direct control

• Warren Hastings, with support from the East India Company’s directors, championed the transition.
• Centralized revenue collection under the East India Company, ensuring consistent and increased revenue.
• Dismantling of the Dual System led to the direct control of British officials over administrative roles.
• Nawabs and local rulers reduced to ceremonial roles, losing real power and control over their territories.
• The Regulating Act of 1773 further cemented British control, centralizing authority under the Governor-General.

Immediate administrative changes

• Streamlined revenue collection: Direct oversight by British officials led to a more structured approach.
• Establishment of British courts: Introduced to ensure justice and reduce the influence of traditional Indian courts.
• Reorganization of administrative units: Districts and provinces were redrawn to simplify governance.
• Enhanced military presence: To maintain law and order and suppress any dissent or unrest.
• Reduction in the influence of local leaders: British officials took on key administrative roles, sidelining Indian leaders.

V. Implementation of Direct Control

Administrative restructuring

• With the shift from the Dual System to Direct Control, the East India Company initiated comprehensive administrative restructuring.
• The prime objective was to establish a more streamlined, efficient, and centralized governance system.
• There was a profound redefinition of roles, with British officials assuming central administrative and authoritative positions.
• Administrative divisions, such as districts and provinces, were redrawn to suit the new power dynamics and ease of governance.
• The establishment of British courts curtailed the influence of traditional Indian legal systems, emphasizing British jurisprudence.

Feature	Dual System	Direct Control
Governance Style	Shared power with Nawabs	Sole power with British officials
Revenue Collection	Inconsistent due to dual authorities	Streamlined under British oversight
Administrative Divisions	Based on traditional boundaries	Redrawn for British convenience
Legal System	Combined British and Indian courts	Dominance of British courts
Major Players	East India Company, Nawabs, local rulers	East India Company, British officials

Changes in revenue collection

• A significant shift was observed in revenue collection methodologies.
• Under the Dual System, revenue collection faced numerous inconsistencies owing to divided authorities.
• With Direct Control, the East India Company had centralized revenue collection under its direct oversight, leading to better consistency and efficiency.
• Traditional Indian methods of tax collection were replaced or modified to align with British practices.
• Efforts were made to minimize corruption and maximize the inflow of revenues.

Power dynamics between British officials and native chieftains

• The transition to Direct Control altered the power balance drastically.
• Native chieftains, who once enjoyed substantial autonomy, found their powers significantly curbed.
• British officials often sidelined these chieftains, relegating them to ceremonial roles or entirely out of administration.
• This shift was instrumental in the British Empire solidifying its hold over India, ensuring minimal resistance from local powers.
• Many chieftains retained their titles and lands but had to pledge allegiance to the British Crown.

Role of district collectors

• District collectors emerged as pivotal figures in the administration during the period of Direct Control.
• These individuals were typically British officials appointed by the East India Company.
• Their primary responsibilities encompassed revenue collection, maintenance of law and order, and overseeing administrative matters in their respective districts.
• They acted as the direct link between the East India Company and the local populace, ensuring British policies and decisions were effectively implemented.
• The role also required mediating disputes and understanding local issues, making the position challenging yet influential in shaping local governance.

VI. Reaction of Indian Princes and Chieftains

Initial reception of the abolition

• Shock and Disbelief: The abrupt end of the dual governance system left many Indian princes and chieftains in a state of surprise.
• Sense of Loss: Many lamented the loss of semi-autonomous power they held under the previous system.
• Hesitation: Princes were unsure of their future roles and positions under the new system of direct control.

Fears and apprehensions

• Loss of Sovereignty: Many Indian rulers were anxious about losing their royal status and the potential annexation of their territories.
• Economic Concerns: Apprehensions about possible unfavorable economic policies or loss of revenue sources under direct British control.
• Cultural and Religious Fears: Concerns about the imposition of foreign customs and potential interference in religious practices.
• Mistrust: The East India Company’s history of annexations and treaties, especially the Doctrine of Lapse, cultivated mistrust.

Instances of resistance and acceptance

• Pune Rebellion (1817-1818): Led by the Maratha Peshwa Baji Rao II against the East India Company.
• Siege of Jhansi (1858): Rani Lakshmibai of Jhansi resisted British forces during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
• Acceptance in Mysore: Following the death of Tipu Sultan, the Wodeyar dynasty of Mysore accepted British suzerainty and continued to rule as puppet monarchs.
• Travancore and Cochin: These princely states accepted the subsidiary alliance offered by the British, which allowed them to maintain internal sovereignty while giving up external affairs and defense to the British.

Negotiations and treaties with the East India Company

• Subsidiary Alliances: A series of treaties in which Indian rulers accepted British protection in return for ceding control over their foreign affairs.
• Doctrine of Lapse: Implemented by Lord Dalhousie, it allowed the British to annex any princely state under the Company’s protection if the ruler died without a direct heir.
• Treaty of Bassein (1802): Signed between the British and the Maratha Peshwa, ensuring the latter’s dependence on the British for military support.
• Relations Post-1857: After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British Crown took over the governance of India from the East India Company. Many treaties were revised, and the rights of the Indian princes were more clearly defined, although they remained subservient to the British.

VII. Societal and Economic Impacts of Direct Control

Transformation in agrarian society

• The introduction of land revenue policies by the British led to a transformation in the agrarian fabric of India.
• Permanent Settlement introduced in 1793 under Lord Cornwallis was a major landmark.
  • Established landowners known as zamindars were made the de-facto owners of the land.
  • Required to collect and pay a fixed sum of revenue to the British.
  • Allowed zamindars to increase land rent which caused distress among the peasants.
• Rise of moneylenders in the countryside.
  • Due to high land revenue demands, many farmers fell into debt and lost their land to moneylenders.
• The British focus on commercial crops like indigo, tea, and opium.
  • Forced farmers to shift from subsistence crops to these cash crops.
  • Resulted in frequent famines as food crop cultivation decreased.

Land revenue policies and their impact on farmers

• Ryotwari System introduced in early 19th century primarily in Madras and Bombay.
  • Direct relation between the government and the peasant.
  • Eliminated the zamindar as the middleman.
  • Farmers were given ownership rights but with high revenue demands.
• Mahalwari System was prevalent in the North-Western provinces and parts of Central India.
  • Revenue was fixed for a group of villages (mahal) and villagers were collectively responsible for payment.
• High and inflexible revenue demands led to:
  • Farmers getting caught in debt traps with no escape.
  • Large-scale land alienation where farmers lost their ancestral land.
  • Repeated agricultural crises and famines.

Trade dynamics: benefits and challenges for Indian traders

• Raw materials like cotton, opium, and indigo were in high demand in Britain.
  • Boosted Indian exports but often at the expense of the local populace.
• Manchester and Lancashire became centers of textile industries, which heavily depended on Indian cotton.
• Import of cheap British manufactured goods devastated local industries.
  • Traditional artisans and weavers faced unemployment.
  • The famed muslin industry of Bengal faced a severe decline.
• Protectionist policies of the British government favored British traders.
  • Imposition of high tariffs on Indian goods entering Britain.
  • At the same time, British goods enjoyed easy access to Indian markets.

Shifts in urban centers due to administrative changes

• Emergence of new urban centers as colonial administrative hubs.
  • Cities like Calcutta (now Kolkata), Bombay (now Mumbai), and Madras (now Chennai) became major urban centers.
• Shift of capital from Calcutta to Delhi in 1911 was significant.
  • Represented the British’s desire to establish their authority by choosing a city with historical importance.
• Rise of cantonment towns near major cities.
  • Areas reserved for the British military and civil establishment.
  • Examples include Secunderabad near Hyderabad and Barrackpore near Calcutta.
• British architectural influence became evident.
  • Introduction of European-style buildings, bungalows, and official residences.
  • Development of railways and road networks transformed the urban landscape.

VIII. Role of British Officials Under Direct Control

Duties and Responsibilities

• General Governance: Overseeing administrative functions of regions and ensuring the smooth running of British policies.
• Collection of Revenue: Implementing revenue systems such as the Ryotwari and Mahalwari and ensuring timely tax collection.
• Maintaining Law and Order: Functioned as magistrates, handling local disputes and ensuring peace in their territories.
• Implementing Reforms: Played an active role in introducing and managing reforms in areas like education, transport, and judiciary.
• Overseeing Development Projects: British officials were responsible for infrastructural projects, including building roads, railways, and telegraph lines.

Training and Orientation towards Indian Society and Culture

• Establishment of Institutions: The East India Company established institutions like the Haileybury College in England to train its officials for administrative roles in India.
• Cultural Training: Officials were trained about Indian society, languages, traditions, and customs. Many learned regional languages to effectively administer areas.
• Introduction to Indian Legal Systems: They were also taught about prevailing indigenous legal systems and how to incorporate or override them with British laws.
• Mixed Reception of Indian Traditions: While some officials developed an appreciation for Indian culture, others held Orientalist views, perceiving Indian customs as backward and needing reform.

Relationship with the Local Populace

• Paternalistic Approach: Many British officials viewed themselves as guardians of the Indian populace, believing in the ‘White Man’s Burden’ concept.
• Cultural Exchanges: Some officials indulged in local festivities, engaged with Indian elites, and even adopted certain Indian customs.
• Distrust and Aloofness: Conversely, other officials maintained distance, exhibiting racial superiority and generally mingling only within their circles.
• Relying on Local Informants: British officials often relied on a network of local informants and intermediaries to gain insights and information about the native populace.

Cases of Excesses and Redressal Mechanisms

• Jallianwala Bagh Massacre (1919): Brigadier General Dyer ordered the firing on unarmed civilians in Amritsar, leading to the death of hundreds. This incident is an infamous example of British excesses.
• Witch-Hunting of “Thuggees”: Under the leadership of William Sleeman, an aggressive campaign was launched against the so-called “Thugs,” often leading to unwarranted arrests and executions.
• Redressal Mechanisms: While the British did set up courts and grievance redressal systems, the justice delivered was often skewed in favor of the British. The native populace found it challenging to seek justice against British officials.
• Public Outrage and Pressure: Incidents like the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre led to significant public outrage, pressurizing the British to act. Such pressure sometimes resulted in inquiries and actions against officials, though not always satisfactory.

IX. The Judicial Reforms and Direct Control

Evolution of the judiciary after 1772

• 1772: Warren Hastings established dual court system in Bengal.
  • Districts got civil (Diwani) and criminal (Faujdari) courts.
  • Revenue and criminal matters separated.
  • British officials supervised justice, yet relied on traditional Indian laws.
• 1774: Establishment of Supreme Court at Calcutta.
  • Sir Elijah Impey was its first Chief Justice.
  • Merged multiple jurisdiction authorities.
  • Aimed to uphold the rights of the British citizens.
• 1790: Cornwallis reforms enhanced the judiciary system.
  • He abolished the provincial courts of appeal.
  • Introduced new district courts.
  • Judges had dual roles: judicial and revenue functions.

Incorporation of British legal principles

• Introduction of Common Law and Equity.
  • Both are pillars of British legal principles.
• Habeas Corpus introduced.
  • Prevented unlawful detention.
  • Ensured individual’s right to seek relief from unlawful imprisonment.
• Doctrine of Precedence.
  • Lower courts bound by decisions of higher courts.
  • Enhanced consistency in the judicial process.
• Introduction of the concept of ‘Rule of Law’.
  • Equality before the law.
  • Supremacy of ordinary law, no arbitrary powers.
• Abolition of certain traditional practices.
  • Practices deemed inhumane, like Sati, were abolished.
  • Uplifted social justice and human rights.

Reaction of the native population to the new judicial system

• Initial resentment and mistrust.
  • Due to unfamiliarity with British legal nuances.
  • Feared erosion of traditional values and rights.
• Gradual appreciation for certain reforms.
  • Elimination of some outdated, cruel practices.
  • Objective approach in certain verdicts.
• Perception of bias.
  • Felt British citizens were often favored.
  • Grievances regarding high legal fees and slow proceedings.
• Rise in legal professionals.
  • Indian lawyers began to understand and exploit British legal system.
  • E.g., Dadabhai Naoroji and Motilal Nehru became prominent figures.

Comparison: Traditional Indian vs. British legal systems

Feature	Traditional Indian System	British Legal System
Foundation	Religious Texts (Dharma)	Common Law & Equity
Nature	Flexible, region-specific	Structured, standardized
Authority	Local chieftains, monarchs	Codified laws, judiciary
Practices	Varied (e.g., village panchayats)	Centralized courts, formal procedures
Role of Precedence	Limited	Crucial
Rights & Freedoms	Defined by community & caste	Individual rights, equality
Remedies & Punishments	Restorative, community-based	Punitive, jail terms
Land and Property Rights	Hereditary, communal	Documented, individualized

X. The Military Aspect of Direct Control

Changes in military structure

• Before British dominance, India comprised multiple regional armies, typically under the control of local kings or chieftains.
• The British streamlined the fragmented armies into a structured and centralized command.
• Bengal, Madras, and Bombay Presidencies had separate armies.
• Introduction of Artillery, Cavalry, and Infantry divisions, mirroring British army structures.
• New hierarchy in place:
  • British officials occupied senior and strategic positions.
  • Indian soldiers, termed sepoys, occupied junior ranks.
• Establishment of military cantonments across India.
  • Served as bases for British troops.
  • Locations like Meerut, Kanpur, and Jalandhar became prominent cantonments.

Recruitment policies

• Initial British recruitment focused on traditional martial races.
  • Included communities like the Gurkhas, Sikhs, and Rajputs.
  • Belief that these communities had inherent military qualities.
• Systematic discrimination against certain communities.
  • British believed they were unreliable or had anti-colonial sentiments.
• With time, recruitment expanded to other communities.
• Doctrine of Lapse impacted recruitment.
  • States without heirs were annexed.
  • Soldiers from annexed states forced into the British army.

Position of Indian soldiers under the new system

• Indian soldiers, or sepoys, formed the majority of the British army in India.
• Lower pay compared to their British counterparts.
• Denied higher-ranking positions.
  • Led to discontent and a sense of discrimination among sepoys.
• Served overseas in various British campaigns.
  • Against their religious beliefs and traditions.
• Policies impacting their religious sentiments:
  • Introduction of Enfield P-53 rifle.
    • Rumored cartridge greased with cow and pig fat.
    • Led to the 1857 Sepoy Mutiny, which shook British rule.

Important military campaigns and their implications

• First Anglo-Sikh War (1845-1846)
  • Resulted in the Treaty of Lahore.
  • Jammu and Kashmir sold to Gulab Singh.
• Second Anglo-Sikh War (1848-1849)
  • Annexation of Punjab into the British Empire.
  • Establishment of British military rule in Punjab.
• Anglo-Burmese Wars
  • Series of three wars between 1824 and 1885.
  • Resulted in British control over Burma (Myanmar).
  • Affected trade routes and strategic positions in Southeast Asia.
• Anglo-Afghan Wars
  • Series of three wars between 1839 and 1919.
  • Affirmed British control over Afghan foreign policy.
  • Strategic importance due to Russian influence in Central Asia.
• 1857 Sepoy Mutiny (First War of Independence)
  • First major revolt against British rule.
  • Triggered by discontent with British military and political policies.
  • Resulted in:
    • End of East India Company‘s rule.
    • Initiation of direct British rule in India.
    • Significant changes in military policies and structure.
    • Shift from Bengal-centric army to diversification of recruitment.
• These campaigns highlighted:
  • British military might and strategic acumen.
  • Indian soldiers’ crucial role in the expansion and maintenance of the British Empire.

XI. Critiques and Analysis of Direct Control

Perspectives from Indian historians

• Jawaharlal Nehru’s account
  • Highlighted the economic drain from India to Britain.
  • British policies led to a decline in traditional industries.
  • Lamented the deliberate efforts to sow religious and communal differences.
• R. C. Majumdar’s views
  • British brought political unity to India but at the cost of self-esteem.
  • Stressed on the debilitating impact on India’s economy and self-sufficiency.
  • Felt British rule, though exploitative, had some unintentional benefits.
• Romila Thapar’s stance
  • Analyzed the complex cultural changes during British rule.
  • Argued the British played a role in the hardening of religious identities.
  • Noted the reshaping of India’s historical narrative to suit colonial needs.

Views of British contemporaries

• James Mill
  • Advocated for the ‘civilizing mission’ narrative.
  • Felt the British brought rationality and modernity to a stagnant Indian society.
• Edmund Burke
  • Criticized the misgovernance and moral degeneration of the East India Company.
  • Pushed for reforms and accountability in colonial administration.
• Lord Macaulay
  • Believed in the superiority of Western education and knowledge.
  • Aimed to produce a class of anglicized Indians to serve as intermediaries.

The long-term impacts of direct control on Indian polity and society

• Administrative legacy
  • The Indian Civil Service, a precursor to today’s Indian Administrative Service.
  • Introduction of the railway system, linking the subcontinent.
• Judicial and legal systems
  • British introduced a uniform legal system.
  • The Indian Penal Code, still in effect today, was drafted during British rule.
• Educational impact
  • English as the medium of instruction introduced a new elite class.
  • Universities established during British rule set the tone for higher education.
• Socio-cultural impacts
  • The English language became a tool for social mobility.
  • British policies inadvertently led to the rise of Indian nationalism.

The debate on its efficacy and fairness

• Positive outcomes
  • India’s vast railway network.
  • Uniform legal and administrative systems.
  • Opening up of Indian society to modern Western thought.
• Negative outcomes
  • Exploitation and drain of Indian wealth.
  • Disruption of traditional industries leading to poverty.
  • Divisive policies exacerbating communal tensions.
• Unintended consequences
  • The rise of a pan-Indian consciousness.
  • The promotion of English led to India’s global integration in the post-independence era.

XII. Later Reforms and their Relation to Direct Control

Prelude to the Regulating Act (1773)

• Background Context: By the mid-18th century, the British East India Company had established significant territories in India. However, its administrative inefficiencies, allegations of corruption, and malpractices led to demands for reforms in England.
• Economic Considerations: A financial crisis in 1772 exposed the East India Company’s inability to manage its vast territories, calling into question its capacity to generate profits for British shareholders.
• Need for Governance: The lack of a structured governance model in territories under the East India Company’s rule resulted in administrative chaos, leading to lawlessness and discontent among the Indian populace.
• British Parliament’s Involvement: Recognizing the economic and political implications of the situation, the British Parliament felt the need to intervene, marking the beginning of the state’s direct involvement in India’s governance.

Indications of further changes in the Pitt’s India Act (1784)

• Genesis: Dissatisfaction with the Regulating Act’s outcomes and the continuing challenges in India led to the formulation of the Pitt’s India Act.
• Bifurcation of Powers: The act bifurcated the company’s commercial and political functions. While the Board of Control oversaw political activities and territorial concerns, the Court of Directors was limited to the company’s commercial dealings.
• Strengthened Governance: The Governor-General’s powers were further enhanced, with a provision to overrule the council in critical matters.
• Checks and Balances: The Board of Control had the authority to oversee and supervise the work of the East India Company, ensuring that decisions taken were in line with British interests.

Charter Act (1833)

• Abolition of Monopoly: The act ended the East India Company’s trade monopoly in India, except for trade in tea. This allowed other British merchants to capitalize on the vast Indian market.
• Centralization of Administration: The act centralized administration by vesting all civil, military, and revenue powers in the Governor-General. Consequently, Bombay and Madras presidencies lost their legislative powers.
• Promotion of Indian Welfare: The act contained provisions that no Indian would be denied employment based on religion, descent, or place of birth. This was one of the earliest attempts at ensuring some form of fairness in governance.
• Admission of Indian Representation: The act paved the way for Indians to be part of the legislative council, signaling the beginning of representative governance.

The transition from direct control to later forms of governance

• Increasing Parliamentary Supervision: As the 19th century progressed, the British Parliament’s control over India’s governance mechanisms became progressively stronger, reducing the East India Company’s role.
• First War of Independence: The 1857 revolt played a pivotal role in shifting control from the East India Company to the British Crown. It was a clear indication of the deep-rooted dissatisfaction with the company’s mode of governance.
• Government of India Act (1858): In the aftermath of the revolt, this act transferred the powers of the East India Company directly to the British Crown. Queen Victoria’s proclamation promised non-interference in religious practices, equal treatment, and the Indianization of the administrative setup.
• Decentralization and Provincial Autonomy: Later acts and reforms, such as the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) and Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms (1919), aimed at decentralizing powers and providing more autonomy to provinces, marking a departure from the earlier centralized approach.
• Formation of Indian National Congress: Founded in 1885, the INC started pressing for more rights and greater participation for Indians, heralding the movement for self-governance and ultimately leading to India’s independence in 1947.

XIII. Conclusion

The legacy of the abolition of the Dual System

• Origins and Context: The Dual System was an administrative approach introduced by Robert Clive post the Battle of Plassey in 1757, splitting revenue collection and civil administration.
• Abolition Rationale: The system was inefficient, led to corruption, and was increasingly seen as unsuitable for governing vast territories.
• Effects Post Abolition:
  • Brought about greater control and surveillance of the British East India Company by the British Crown.
  • Streamlined the governance structure, laying groundwork for subsequent reforms.
  • Eliminated intermediaries in revenue collection, leading to a direct British involvement in Indian fiscal matters.
  • Enabled a tighter grip on India’s administration, diminishing the power of regional nawabs and landlords.

How it shaped subsequent British policies in India

• Centralization of Power: The British East India Company and later the British Crown aimed for direct administration, minimizing reliance on indigenous rulers.
• Series of Acts: The Regulating Act, Pitt’s India Act, and the Charter Acts were direct responses to the administrative challenges under the Dual System.
• Revenue Reforms: Warren Hastings and later administrators sought to reform land revenue collection, leading to Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari systems.
• Judicial and Administrative Reforms: The establishment of civil and criminal courts, codification of laws, and appointment of Indian judges.
• Infrastructure Development: Railways, telegraph, roads, and canals were developed, making administration and resource mobilization efficient.

Its influence on the Indian struggle for independence

• Initial Discontent: The direct control and subsequent policies created disparities, leading to discontent among different sections of Indian society.
• Rise of Nationalism: Exposure to European education, thoughts, and the comparison of exploitative British policies with Indian ideals led to the rise of an educated middle class advocating for self-rule.
• Mass Movements: The Civil Disobedience Movement, Non-Cooperation Movement, and Quit India Movement were all outcomes of prolonged British control and the yearning for independence.
• Influence on Leaders: Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Subhas Chandra Bose, and Mahatma Gandhi referenced the exploitative colonial policies and their impacts in their speeches and writings.

Reflection on the transformation of the Indian subcontinent under British Raj

• Economic Impact:
  • Shift from a self-reliant economy to a colonial one.
  • De-industrialization of sectors like textiles, favoring British goods.
  • Drain of Wealth theory proposed by Dadabhai Naoroji highlighted the economic exploitation.
• Social Transformation:
  • Introduction of Western education and English language.
  • Rise of the educated middle class, advocating for social reforms and self-governance.
  • Decline of traditional Indian social institutions, replaced by British-led systems.
• Cultural Impacts:
  • Introduction of printing press, newspapers, and modern literature.
  • Interactions with Western thoughts led to the Indian Renaissance, fostering reformists like Raja Ram Mohan Roy.
  • However, certain policies also widened religious and caste-based divides.
• Political Changes:
  • From a land of princely states and regional powers to a centralized British authority.
  • Laid the foundation for a unified national political entity, eventually leading to the democratic republic of India post-independence.

1. Analyze the role of Warren Hastings in transitioning from the Dual System to Direct Control in British India. (250 words)
2. Discuss the economic implications on Indian traders due to the shift to Direct Control by the East India Company. (250 words)
3. Evaluate the impact of British legal principles on the traditional Indian judiciary after the establishment of Direct Control. (250 words)