3.8 The English utilitarian and India

I. Introduction

Definition of Utilitarianism

• Utilitarianism is an ethical theory that determines the moral worth of an action based on its contribution to overall utility, which is often defined as the well-being or happiness of a community or individual.
• The core principle of utilitarianism is to achieve the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
• It emphasizes maximizing pleasure and minimizing pain as the ultimate goal of moral actions.

Origins of Utilitarianism

• The roots of utilitarianism can be traced back to ancient civilizations, but its modern form emerged in the 18th and 19th centuries.
• Early proponents of utilitarian thought include Bishop Richard Cumberland and Francis Hutcheson.
• However, the most influential contributors to classical utilitarianism in the 19th century were English philosophers and economists Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill.
• Bentham introduced the concept of the “hedonic calculus”, a method to quantify pleasure and pain, and determine the net utility of an action.
• John Stuart Mill, on the other hand, refined and expanded upon Bentham’s ideas, emphasizing the quality of pleasures over mere quantity.

Utilitarianism and its Connection to India

• English utilitarianism, particularly during the 19th century, played a significant role in shaping British policies and governance in India.
• James Mill, a prominent utilitarian thinker, was deeply involved in the colonial administration of India. His work, “History of British India”, provided a utilitarian perspective on Indian culture and history.
• Mill’s utilitarian views justified the British rule in India, arguing that the colonization would bring about the greatest good for the Indian populace by introducing reforms and modernization.
• The utilitarian philosophy influenced various spheres of governance in India, from education and legal reforms to land revenue systems.
• The introduction of English education in India, for instance, was seen by utilitarians as fulfilling Britain’s imperial mission and as a tool for societal reform.
• Utilitarian principles also influenced administrative and judicial reforms, emphasizing the ‘Rule of Law’ and a uniform system of administration.

II. Origins and Principles of English Utilitarianism

Evolution of Utilitarian Thought

• Utilitarianism, as a philosophy, has its roots in ancient civilizations, but its modern form began to take shape during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The central idea revolves around the concept of maximizing happiness and minimizing suffering.
• Over time, the philosophy evolved, incorporating various nuances and interpretations, but always focusing on the overall well-being of individuals and society.

Key Proponents: Jeremy Bentham

• Jeremy Bentham was a central figure in the development of modern utilitarianism.
• Born in 1748, Bentham was an English philosopher, jurist, and social reformer.
• He introduced the concept of the “hedonic calculus,” a method to quantify the amount of pleasure and pain generated by different actions.
• Bentham’s philosophy was grounded in the belief that human beings are fundamentally driven by their desires and aversions.
• He argued that the right action is the one that produces the greatest net happiness, taking into account both pleasure and pain.
• Bentham’s utilitarianism was more quantitative, focusing on the amount of pleasure over its quality.

Key Proponents: John Stuart Mill

• John Stuart Mill, born in 1806, was another pivotal figure in the utilitarian movement and was heavily influenced by Bentham’s ideas.
• However, Mill introduced significant refinements to Bentham’s utilitarianism.
• Mill emphasized the quality of pleasures over mere quantity. He believed that some pleasures are inherently more valuable than others.
• For Mill, intellectual and moral pleasures were superior to mere physical pleasures.
• He argued that a person would always prefer a higher pleasure over a lower one if they had experienced both.
• Mill’s utilitarianism also considered the broader implications of individual actions on society, emphasizing the importance of individual rights and liberty.

Definition of Utility and its Measurement

• In the context of utilitarianism, utility refers to the overall well-being or happiness of an individual or community.
• It’s a measure of the net positive experiences (pleasures) minus negative experiences (pains).
• The “hedonic calculus,” introduced by Bentham, was an attempt to measure utility by quantifying pleasure and pain.
• Factors considered in this calculus included intensity, duration, certainty, proximity, fecundity (likelihood of leading to more pleasure or pain), purity (likelihood of not leading to the opposite sensation), and extent (how many people are affected).

“Greatest Happiness for the Greatest Number” Principle

• This principle is the cornerstone of utilitarian philosophy.
• It posits that the best action is the one that maximizes happiness for the largest number of people.
• Both Bentham and Mill emphasized this principle, though their interpretations varied.
• While Bentham focused on the total amount of happiness produced, Mill was more concerned with maximizing higher-quality pleasures.
• The principle underscores the importance of considering the collective well-being over individual interests, ensuring that actions benefit the majority.

III. Growth of Classical English Utilitarianism

Early Proponents

• The classical form of utilitarianism saw its development during the 18th and 19th centuries, and several thinkers contributed to its growth.
• Bishop Richard Cumberland, an English theologian and philosopher, was one of the early proponents. He argued that promoting the well-being of others is a natural law and is in line with personal well-being.
• Francis Hutcheson, another early advocate, introduced the idea that moral worth is determined by the ability of an action to promote the greatest good for the greatest number. He believed that humans have an innate moral sense that guides them towards actions that maximize public happiness.

Bentham’s Emphasis on Pleasure and Pain

• Jeremy Bentham played a pivotal role in the growth of classical utilitarianism. His approach was more quantitative, focusing on the measurement of pleasure and pain.
• He introduced the “hedonic calculus”, a method to quantify the amount of pleasure and pain generated by different actions. This calculus considered factors like intensity, duration, certainty, and extent.
• Bentham’s philosophy was grounded in the belief that human beings are fundamentally driven by their desires and aversions. He argued that the right action is the one that produces the greatest net happiness, taking into account both pleasure and pain.

Role of Utilitarianism in Legislation and Governance

• Utilitarian principles greatly influenced British legislation and governance during the 18th and 19th centuries.
• The focus was on creating laws and policies that would maximize the happiness of the majority.
• This approach led to several reforms in areas like criminal law, where the severity of punishments was assessed based on their ability to deter crime and protect society, rather than on retribution.
• In governance, utilitarian principles were applied to ensure efficient administration and the well-being of the governed. The emphasis was on rationality, predictability, and the rule of law.

Emergence of “Philosophical Radicalism”

• As utilitarianism grew in influence, it gave rise to a movement known as “philosophical radicalism” during the early 19th century.
• This movement, led by thinkers like Bentham and James Mill, advocated for radical political and social reforms based on utilitarian principles.
• Philosophical radicals believed in the power of reason and education to bring about societal change. They championed causes like universal suffrage, freedom of speech, and the separation of church and state.
• They also played a significant role in advocating for reforms in areas like education, prison systems, and public health, always with the aim of maximizing societal happiness.

IV. Utilitarianism’s Influence on British Governance

James Mill’s Advocacy

• James Mill, a prominent utilitarian thinker, played a significant role in shaping British governance, especially concerning India.
• He was a strong advocate for a representative government, believing that it would lead to laws and policies that maximize the happiness of the majority.
• Mill’s views on governance were deeply rooted in utilitarian principles. He believed that a representative government, where officials are accountable to the public, would naturally work towards the greatest good for the greatest number.
• In addition to advocating for representative governance, Mill was a proponent of universal male suffrage. He believed that by giving all men the right to vote, the government would be more inclined to create policies that benefit the majority, adhering to utilitarian ideals.
• His work, “History of British India,” reflects his utilitarian perspective on Indian culture and the justification for British rule. He argued that British governance, with its emphasis on rationality and the rule of law, would lead to reforms and modernization in India, ultimately maximizing happiness.

John Stuart Mill’s Support for Reforms

• John Stuart Mill, following in the footsteps of his father James Mill, was another influential figure in the utilitarian movement and its impact on British governance.
• Unlike his father, John Stuart Mill was a strong supporter of women’s suffrage. He believed that excluding women from the political process was not only unjust but also went against utilitarian principles. By giving women the right to vote, society would benefit from diverse perspectives, leading to better policies and greater overall happiness.
• Mill was also a staunch advocate for universal public education. He believed that education was a fundamental right and that an educated populace would make better decisions, both personally and politically. This, in turn, would lead to a society that maximizes happiness and minimizes suffering.
• His work, “On Liberty,” delves deep into the importance of individual rights and freedom of speech from a utilitarian perspective. Mill argued that protecting individual rights and ensuring freedom of speech were essential for a society’s overall well-being. He believed that suppressing opinions, even if they are unpopular, hinders progress and goes against the utilitarian principle of maximizing happiness.

Freedom of Speech and Individual Rights from a Utilitarian Perspective

• Both James Mill and John Stuart Mill emphasized the importance of individual rights, especially the right to freedom of speech.
• From a utilitarian viewpoint, freedom of speech allows for a marketplace of ideas, where the best ideas rise to the top, leading to societal progress and greater overall happiness.
• Suppressing speech or opinions can lead to stagnation and prevent society from evolving and improving.
• Individual rights, when protected and upheld, ensure that each person can pursue their happiness without infringing on the rights of others. This aligns with the utilitarian principle of maximizing happiness for the greatest number.

V. Effects of Utilitarianism in Various Spheres

Impact on Law, Politics, and Economics

• Utilitarianism has profoundly influenced the spheres of law, politics, and economics, especially during the 19th century.
• In the realm of law, utilitarian principles were employed to assess the appropriateness of punishments. The goal was to ensure that penalties deterred crime effectively while causing the least amount of suffering.
• Politics was reshaped by the utilitarian emphasis on the greatest good for the greatest number. This principle led to the advocacy for representative governments and universal suffrage, ensuring that policies and laws catered to the majority’s interests.
• In economics, utilitarianism promoted policies that aimed at maximizing societal welfare. Economic decisions were evaluated based on their potential to increase overall happiness and reduce suffering.

Utilitarian Theory of Punishment

• The utilitarian theory of punishment is rooted in the idea of maximizing societal happiness. Punishments should deter future crimes and rehabilitate offenders rather than merely inflicting suffering.
• This theory contrasts with retributive justice, which seeks to punish offenders because they deserve it. Instead, utilitarianism focuses on the broader societal impact of punishments.
• For instance, prison reforms in the 19th century, influenced by utilitarian thought, aimed at rehabilitating inmates rather than merely punishing them.

Utilitarianism as a Political Philosophy

• Utilitarianism emerged as a dominant political philosophy during the 19th century, especially in Britain.
• It advocated for policies and governance structures that would maximize the happiness of the majority.
• This philosophy supported the establishment of representative governments, where officials are accountable to the public and work towards the greatest good.
• It also emphasized the importance of individual rights, arguing that protecting these rights leads to a happier and more prosperous society.

Support for Democracy and Individual Liberty

• Democracy and individual liberty are cornerstones of utilitarian political thought.
• Democracy, by allowing every individual a voice, ensures that policies and decisions reflect the majority’s desires, leading to greater societal happiness.
• Individual liberty, on the other hand, ensures that each person can pursue their happiness without undue restrictions. Utilitarians believed that a society that respects individual rights is more likely to flourish and progress.
• Figures like John Stuart Mill were vocal advocates for both democracy and individual liberty, emphasizing their importance from a utilitarian perspective.

Progressive Social Change and its Challenges

• Utilitarianism has been a driving force behind many progressive social changes, advocating for reforms that would increase societal happiness.
• However, this approach faced challenges. Critics argued that utilitarianism, by focusing on the majority’s happiness, could overlook minority rights.
• There were concerns that policies rooted in utilitarian thought might lead to a “tyranny of the majority,” where minority interests are consistently overridden.
• Despite these challenges, utilitarianism’s influence persisted, and it played a pivotal role in shaping many progressive reforms in the 19th and 20th centuries.

VI. James Mill and British Imperialism in India

Mill’s Conviction about India’s Need for Enlightenment

• James Mill, a prominent utilitarian philosopher, held strong beliefs regarding India’s need for enlightenment.
• He perceived India as a civilization that was stagnant and in dire need of progress.
• Mill believed that the British had a moral duty to bring about this progress and enlightenment to India.
• He argued that the British could provide the necessary governance, education, and societal structures to uplift India.

Utilitarian Justification for British Rule

• From a utilitarian perspective, the British rule was justified if it led to the “greatest happiness for the greatest number.”
• Mill contended that British governance would lead to better administration, justice, and overall welfare for the Indian populace.
• He believed that the British could offer superior governance compared to the indigenous rulers of India.
• The utilitarian argument was that the benefits of British rule, such as modern infrastructure, education, and legal systems, would outweigh any potential drawbacks.

Mill’s “History of British India” and His Perspective on Indian Culture

• James Mill authored the influential work “History of British India.”
• In this work, he presented a critical view of Indian culture, religion, and history.
• Mill categorized Indian history into three periods: Hindu, Muslim, and British.
• He was particularly critical of the Hindu and Muslim periods, viewing them as times of despotism and stagnation.
• Mill’s perspective was that the British period represented a time of progress and enlightenment for India.

Periodization of Indian History

• Mill’s periodization of Indian history into Hindu, Muslim, and British epochs was significant.
• This categorization influenced subsequent historical writings and interpretations of Indian history.
• Mill’s periodization was criticized for its oversimplification and for portraying Indian history through a Eurocentric lens.

VII. Utilitarianism and Indian Education

English Education as a Tool for Societal Reform

• The British colonial era in India witnessed a significant shift in the educational landscape.
• The East India Company, initially hesitant about interfering in traditional Indian education, recognized the need for a supportive group in India that would back broad social reforms.
• This supportive group began to emerge with the introduction of English education. This became the primary area of intervention and innovation for the Company’s state in India.
• The utilitarians viewed the introduction of English education as the pinnacle of Britain’s imperial mission.
• Lord Moira in 1815 emphasized that imparting education to the natives was Britain’s “moral duty”.
• The underlying belief was that such an education would not only uplift the Indian society but also make them more suitable for roles within the Company’s expanding bureaucracy.

Utilitarian Belief in the Moral Worth of Education

• Utilitarianism, at its core, is an ethical theory that believes in maximizing utility, often interpreted as the well-being or happiness of the majority.
• In the context of education, utilitarians believed in the moral value of an education that contributed positively to society.
• They promoted instruction in “useful knowledge”, emphasizing subjects and skills that had practical applications and benefits for the community.
• Such an education was seen as a means to aid the greater good of society, ensuring that individuals were equipped with knowledge and skills that had tangible societal benefits.

Macaulay’s Minute on Indian Education and its Utilitarian Underpinnings

• Thomas Babington Macaulay, a key figure in the history of Indian education, played a pivotal role in shaping the educational policies during the British rule.
• In 1835, Macaulay penned the famous “Minute on Indian Education”, which laid the foundation for the introduction and expansion of English education in India.
• Macaulay’s Minute was deeply influenced by utilitarian ideas. He believed that English education would serve as a tool to modernize India and bring it on par with the West.
• The Minute advocated for creating a class of people who would be “Indian in blood and color, but English in taste, in opinions, in morals, and in intellect”. This class would act as intermediaries between the British and the Indian masses.
• Macaulay emphasized the superiority of English literature over traditional Indian scriptures and classics. He believed that a single shelf of European books was worth the entire native literature of India and Arabia.
• The utilitarian perspective in the Minute was evident in its focus on the practical benefits of English education. It aimed to produce individuals who would be valuable assets to the British administration and bureaucracy.
• The Minute led to significant reforms in the Indian education system, with a shift towards English as the medium of instruction and a curriculum that mirrored the British educational model.

VIII. Utilitarianism and the Indian Legal System

Advocacy for the ‘Rule of Law’ in India

• The concept of the Rule of Law is foundational to democratic societies and ensures that every individual, irrespective of their status, is subject to the law.
• In the context of India under British rule, the utilitarians were strong proponents of establishing the Rule of Law.
• This advocacy was not just a philosophical stance but also aligned with the British interests in India.
• The Rule of Law aimed to replace traditional and often arbitrary systems of justice with a more predictable and standardized legal framework.
• It was believed that such a system would provide stability, ensuring smoother governance and administration by the British.

Uniform System of Administration

• A uniform system of administration was seen as essential for the vast and diverse territories of India.
• The British, influenced by utilitarian principles, sought to implement a consistent administrative structure across different regions.
• This uniformity was not just about ease of governance but also about ensuring that the same set of rules and regulations applied to all territories, reducing complexities and ambiguities.
• Such a system was also believed to be more just, as it would treat all regions and their inhabitants equally, irrespective of their cultural or historical differences.

Codification of Laws and the Indian Penal Code

• One of the most significant legal reforms during the British era was the codification of laws. This process involved consolidating and systematizing various laws into codified statutes.
• Thomas Babington Macaulay, a key figure in Indian legal reforms, was instrumental in this codification process.
• The most notable outcome of this effort was the Indian Penal Code (IPC), formulated in 1835. The IPC provided a comprehensive list of crimes and their corresponding punishments.
• The IPC, influenced by utilitarian principles, aimed to create a legal system that was rational, predictable, and in line with the modern jurisprudential thought of the time.
• Codification was not just about creating a new legal system but also about replacing multiple traditional legal systems with a single, unified code. This was seen as essential for ensuring justice and fairness in a diverse country like India.

Rejection of Indianization of the Government Structure

• The utilitarians, while advocating for reforms in India, were not in favor of Indianizing the government structure.
• Figures like James Mill believed that given the character and cultural background of Indians, they were not fit for the task of their own modernization.
• Such views were rooted in the belief that the British had a civilizing mission in India, and it was their responsibility to govern and bring about reforms.
• The idea of transferring power and responsibilities to Indians was dismissed. Utilitarians believed in creating a modern machine of government that would be run predominantly by the British.
• This stance was not just about governance but also reflected the broader utilitarian perspective that reforms and progress in India could only be achieved under British guidance.

IX. Economic Reforms and Utilitarianism

Ryotwari System and its Roots in Utilitarian Thought

• The Ryotwari system was one of the major land revenue systems introduced in India during the British colonial period.
• Under this system, the land revenue was collected directly from the individual cultivators, known as ‘ryots’.
• The system was based on the principle that the state was the ultimate owner of the land, and the ryots were merely tenants.
• The ryots were given settlement rights, which meant they could cultivate the land, but they had to pay a fixed amount as land revenue to the state.
• The utilitarian philosophy played a significant role in the formulation and implementation of the Ryotwari system.
• Utilitarians believed in maximizing utility, and the Ryotwari system was seen as a means to maximize revenue collection while ensuring the welfare of the cultivators.
• The system aimed to create a direct relationship between the state and the cultivator, eliminating intermediaries and ensuring a more efficient and transparent revenue collection process.

David Ricardo’s Law of Rent

• David Ricardo, a renowned British economist, proposed the Law of Rent which became a foundational concept in classical economics.
• According to this law, the rent of a land is determined by the difference in its produce when compared to the least productive land under cultivation.
• The law suggests that as population increases and more land is brought under cultivation, the rent for the more fertile lands would increase as they produce more compared to the less fertile ones.
• This concept was influential in shaping the land revenue policies during the British era in India.
• The utilitarians, influenced by Ricardo’s Law of Rent, believed that the state should be the primary beneficiary of the rent, as it would maximize the utility for the larger population.

James Mill’s Advocacy for Ryotwari Settlements

• James Mill, a prominent utilitarian thinker, was a strong advocate for the Ryotwari system in India.
• He believed that the system was more rational and efficient compared to other land revenue systems like the Zamindari system.
• Mill’s advocacy was rooted in the utilitarian belief that policies should aim to maximize happiness and welfare for the majority.
• He argued that the Ryotwari system would ensure a fair distribution of resources, reduce exploitation by intermediaries, and lead to a more just and equitable society.

Taxation Based on Land Rent and its Implications

• The British colonial administration, influenced by utilitarian thought and Ricardo’s Law of Rent, introduced taxation policies based on land rent.
• The idea was to tax the surplus produce of the land, ensuring that the state received its due share while the cultivators retained enough for their sustenance.
• However, the implementation of these policies had significant implications for the Indian agrarian society.
• The fixed land revenue often led to over-taxation, especially during years of drought or crop failure.
• Many ryots were unable to pay the fixed revenue and were forced into debt, leading to widespread distress and socio-economic challenges.
• While the system aimed to maximize utility, the on-ground realities often contradicted the utilitarian ideals, leading to debates and criticisms of the British economic policies in India.

X. Critiques and Limitations of Utilitarianism in the Indian Context

Paternalistic Nature Leading to Loss of Human Warmth

• One of the primary critiques of utilitarianism, especially in its application in India, was its paternalistic nature.
• The British, under the guise of the “white man’s burden” and the civilizing mission, often justified their policies by claiming they were for the greater good of the Indian population.
• This approach, while seemingly benevolent, often overlooked the individual needs, emotions, and cultural nuances of the Indian people.
• The utilitarian focus on the “greatest good for the greatest number” sometimes led to a cold, calculated approach to governance.
• This mechanistic view of society and governance often resulted in a loss of human warmth, empathy, and understanding, making policies seem detached and impersonal.

Despotic Power Given to the Government

• Another significant critique was the despotic power that the utilitarian philosophy inadvertently granted to the British government in India.
• By emphasizing the greater good and the overall welfare of the majority, the British colonial administration often took decisions that curtailed individual rights and freedoms.
• The belief that the state knew what was best for its subjects led to a concentration of power and authority.
• This centralization of power, justified by utilitarian principles, often resulted in autocratic rule, where the voice of the individual was suppressed for the perceived greater good.

Ryotwari System Causing Peasant Suffering

• The Ryotwari system, while rooted in utilitarian thought, had several unintended consequences that caused immense suffering for the Indian peasants.
• As previously discussed, the fixed land revenue often led to over-taxation, especially during years of drought or crop failure.
• Many ryots found themselves trapped in a cycle of debt, unable to pay the fixed revenue and forced to borrow at exorbitant interest rates.
• The system, while aiming to maximize revenue and ensure the welfare of the cultivators, often ended up causing distress, dispossession, and socio-economic challenges for the very people it intended to benefit.
• The ground realities of the Ryotwari system starkly contrasted with the utilitarian ideals, leading to widespread criticism and calls for reform.

X. Conclusion

• Overall Impact of English Utilitarian Thought on India
  • English utilitarianism, rooted in the philosophies of thinkers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, profoundly influenced British policies in India.
  • The primary goal was to achieve the “greatest good for the greatest number,” which became a guiding principle for many administrative, educational, and legal reforms.
  • The introduction of the English language and Western education aimed to modernize India and bring about social reforms.
  • However, this often came at the cost of sidelining traditional Indian knowledge systems and values.
  • The utilitarian approach also led to the establishment of a centralized administrative system, aiming for efficiency but often lacking local nuances.
  • Land revenue systems, like the Ryotwari system, were introduced with a utilitarian perspective but had mixed outcomes for the Indian peasantry.
• Legacy of Utilitarian Reforms in Modern India
  • The foundations of the modern Indian administrative, legal, and educational systems can be traced back to utilitarian reforms.
  • The emphasis on the “Rule of Law” and standardized administrative procedures has continued in independent India.
  • English education, introduced with a utilitarian objective, has played a significant role in India’s global prominence in fields like IT and software.
  • However, the legacy is also marked by criticisms, especially regarding the neglect of India’s diverse cultural and traditional knowledge systems.
• Reflection on the Balance Between Utilitarian Principles and Cultural Sensitivity
  • While utilitarian principles aimed for the larger good, the implementation in India often lacked cultural sensitivity.
  • The one-size-fits-all approach, though efficient, sometimes overlooked the vast diversity and richness of India’s cultural landscape.
  • In the modern context, there’s a growing realization about the importance of balancing utilitarian objectives with cultural and local sensitivities.
  • Contemporary India witnesses debates and discussions on revisiting some of these utilitarian reforms, ensuring they align better with India’s unique socio-cultural fabric.

1. How did the principles of English Utilitarianism influence the governance and legislative reforms in India during the British era? (250 words)
2. Analyze the role of key proponents like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill in shaping the utilitarian perspective on individual rights and democracy. (250 words)
3. Assess the implications of the Ryotwari system on the Indian peasantry, considering its roots in utilitarian thought. (250 words)