6.8 Islamic revivalism – the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements

I. Introduction – Historical Context of 19th Century Bengal and Other Areas

The 19th century was a period of significant change in Bengal and other regions of India. This era was marked by the advent of British colonial rule, which brought about profound transformations in the socio-political, religious, and cultural landscapes.

The Socio-Political Environment

• The socio-political environment of 19th century Bengal was largely shaped by the British colonial rule. The British East India Company had established its rule in Bengal after the Battle of Plassey in 1757, and by the 19th century, it had consolidated its power over the region.
• The British introduced new administrative systems, legal codes, and educational policies, which significantly altered the traditional socio-political structures. The Zamindari system, for instance, was formalized under the Permanent Settlement Act of 1793, which had far-reaching implications for the rural agrarian society.
• The introduction of English education led to the emergence of a new class of educated Indians, often referred to as the “Babu” class. This class played a crucial role in shaping the intellectual and political discourse of the time.
• The socio-political changes were not confined to Bengal but were also evident in other parts of India. The British rule led to the centralization of power, the introduction of modern bureaucracy, and the creation of a new legal and administrative framework.

The Religious Landscape

• The religious landscape of 19th century Bengal was characterized by a complex interplay of traditional religious practices, colonial influences, and emerging reform movements.
• Hinduism, the dominant religion, was undergoing significant changes. The traditional caste system was being questioned, and there was a growing emphasis on rationality and monotheism.
• The influence of Christianity, brought by the British, was also significant. Christian missionaries established schools and colleges, which became centers of Western education and Christian proselytization.
• Islam, the second most prevalent religion, was also undergoing changes. The influence of Sufism was waning, and there was a growing emphasis on orthodoxy and scripturalism.
• The religious landscape was also marked by the emergence of new religious movements such as the Brahmo Samaj and the Arya Samaj, which sought to reform traditional religious practices and beliefs.

The Emergence of Reform Movements

• The 19th century was a period of significant social and religious reform movements in Bengal and other parts of India. These movements were a response to the socio-political changes brought about by British colonial rule and the perceived degeneration of traditional Indian society.
• The Brahmo Samaj, founded by Raja Ram Mohan Roy in 1828, was one of the earliest and most influential reform movements. It sought to reform Hinduism by rejecting idolatry and the caste system, and promoting monotheism and rationality.
• The Arya Samaj, founded by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875, was another significant reform movement. It aimed to reform Hinduism by rejecting ritualism and superstition, and promoting the authority of the Vedas.
• The reform movements were not confined to Hinduism. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, for instance, initiated reforms within the Muslim community by promoting modern education and rational interpretation of Islamic scriptures.
• The reform movements played a crucial role in shaping the socio-religious landscape of 19th century Bengal and other regions of India. They laid the foundation for the emergence of modern Indian society and the nationalistic movements of the 20th century.

II. The Concept of Islamic Revivalism

Islamic revivalism refers to a broad range of movements and ideologies that seek to renew and revitalize the Islamic faith, often in response to perceived threats or challenges. These movements typically emphasize a return to the fundamentals of Islam, the importance of religious observance, and the need for social and political reform in accordance with Islamic principles.

Definition and Understanding of Islamic Revivalism

• Islamic revivalism is a complex and multifaceted phenomenon that encompasses a wide range of beliefs, practices, and movements. It is often characterized by a desire to return to the fundamentals of Islam, a commitment to religious observance, and a call for social and political reform in accordance with Islamic principles.
• The concept of Islamic revivalism is closely related to the idea of “tajdid” or renewal, which is a recurring theme in Islamic thought. The Prophet Muhammad is reported to have said that God sends a renewer (mujaddid) to the Muslim community at the beginning of every century to revive the faith.
• Islamic revivalism is not a monolithic or uniform phenomenon. It can take various forms and can be influenced by a variety of factors, including historical, cultural, political, and socio-economic conditions. It can range from peaceful and reformist movements to militant and radical groups.
• Islamic revivalism can also be understood in relation to the concept of “ijtihad” or independent reasoning. Many revivalist movements advocate for the use of ijtihad as a means to reinterpret and adapt Islamic teachings to contemporary circumstances.

The Global Context of Islamic Revivalism in the 19th Century

• The 19th century was a period of significant change and upheaval in the Muslim world. The impact of Western colonialism, the decline of traditional Islamic empires, and the challenges posed by modernity led to a sense of crisis and a search for solutions among many Muslims.
• In response to these challenges, various forms of Islamic revivalism emerged in different parts of the Muslim world. These movements sought to revive and reform Islam, and to mobilize the Muslim community in the face of external threats and internal decay.
• In the Ottoman Empire, for instance, the Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) represented an attempt to modernize the state and society along Western lines while preserving the Islamic character of the empire. The Young Ottomans and later the Young Turks were also influenced by revivalist ideas.
• In Egypt, the Al-Nahda movement sought to reconcile Islamic tradition with modern science and philosophy, and to promote social and political reform. The influential thinker Muhammad Abduh was a key figure in this movement.
• In South Asia, the Deobandi and Barelvi movements represented different responses to the challenges of colonial rule and modernity. The Deobandis emphasized religious education and the preservation of Islamic identity, while the Barelvis sought to accommodate popular religious practices and local cultural traditions.

The Impact of Colonial Rule on Islamic Revivalism in India

• The British colonial rule had a profound impact on the development of Islamic revivalism in India. The loss of political power, the introduction of Western education and legal systems, and the perceived threat to Islamic identity and values led to a sense of crisis among many Indian Muslims.
• In response to these challenges, various forms of Islamic revivalism emerged in India. The Faraidi movement in Bengal, for instance, sought to purify Islam from un-Islamic practices and to mobilize the Muslim peasantry against the oppressive Zamindari system.
• The establishment of the Darul Uloom Deoband in 1866 represented another significant development. The Deobandi scholars emphasized the importance of religious education and the preservation of Islamic identity in the face of British colonial rule.
• The Aligarh Movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, sought to modernize Indian Muslims through Western education and to promote social and political reform. Sir Syed’s vision of a modern, progressive Islam had a significant influence on the Muslim modernist thought in India.
• The impact of colonial rule on Islamic revivalism in India was not uniform. It varied depending on regional, social, and political contexts. Nevertheless, it played a crucial role in shaping the religious, intellectual, and political landscape of Indian Muslims in the 19th century and beyond.

III. The Feraizi Movement

The Feraizi Movement was a significant socio-religious reform movement that emerged in Bengal in the 19th century. This movement was initiated by Haji Shariatullah, a prominent Islamic scholar and reformer, and it aimed to purify Islam by eliminating un-Islamic practices and promoting monotheism and social reforms.

The Life and Teachings of Haji Shariatullah

• Haji Shariatullah was born in 1781 in Faridpur, Bengal. He spent many years in Mecca, where he studied Islamic theology and jurisprudence. After returning to Bengal in 1820, he initiated the Feraizi movement.
• Shariatullah’s teachings were centered on the concept of Tawhid, or the oneness of God. He emphasized the importance of monotheism and rejected practices that he considered to be un-Islamic, such as the veneration of saints and the observance of certain Hindu customs.
• Shariatullah also advocated for social reforms. He opposed the caste system and the oppression of the poor, and he encouraged his followers to lead simple and virtuous lives.

The Socio-Religious Conditions That Led to the Rise of the Feraizi Movement

• The rise of the Feraizi movement can be attributed to the socio-religious conditions of 19th century Bengal. The region was under British colonial rule, which had brought about significant changes in the socio-political and religious landscapes.
• The traditional Islamic practices were being influenced by Hindu customs and British Christian missionary activities. This syncretism led to the incorporation of certain un-Islamic practices into the religious life of the Muslim community.
• The socio-economic conditions were also a factor. The rural Muslim population, particularly the peasantry, was facing economic hardships due to the Zamindari system and the economic policies of the British.

The Principles and Practices of the Feraizi Movement

• The Feraizi movement was based on the principles of Tawhid and the rejection of un-Islamic practices. Shariatullah and his followers, known as Feraizis, sought to purify Islam by eliminating practices such as the veneration of saints, the observance of certain Hindu customs, and the celebration of un-Islamic festivals.
• The movement also emphasized social reforms. It opposed the caste system and advocated for the rights of the poor. The Feraizis were known for their simple and austere lifestyle, which was in stark contrast to the extravagance of the Zamindars and the British officials.
• The Feraizi movement also had a significant political dimension. It resisted the British rule and the Zamindari system, and it advocated for the rights of the peasantry.

The Impact of the Feraizi Movement on Bengal Society and Beyond

• The Feraizi movement had a profound impact on the socio-religious landscape of Bengal. It led to the purification of Islamic practices and the promotion of monotheism and social reforms.
• The movement also had a significant socio-political impact. It challenged the authority of the British and the Zamindars, and it played a crucial role in mobilizing the peasantry against the oppressive Zamindari system.
• The influence of the Feraizi movement was not confined to Bengal. It spread to other parts of India and even to other countries, and it inspired similar reform movements in the Muslim world.

Criticisms and Controversies Surrounding the Feraizi Movement

• The Feraizi movement faced criticism and opposition from various quarters. The British authorities and the Zamindars viewed it as a threat to their authority and interests.
• The movement was also criticized by certain sections of the Muslim community, particularly the orthodox ulema, who disagreed with Shariatullah’s interpretation of Islam and his rejection of traditional Islamic practices.
• Despite these criticisms and controversies, the Feraizi movement made a significant contribution to the socio-religious reform in Bengal and the broader Muslim world. It laid the foundation for the emergence of modern Islamic thought and the nationalistic movements of the 20th century.

IV. The Wahabi Movement

The Wahabi Movement, also known as the Tariqa-i-Muhammadiya, was a significant Islamic revivalist movement that emerged in the 19th century. It was led by Syed Ahmad Barelvi, a religious scholar who sought to purify Islam by returning to its original principles.

The Life and Teachings of Syed Ahmad Barelvi

• Syed Ahmad Barelvi was born in 1786 in Rae Bareli, a town in present-day Uttar Pradesh, India. He was deeply influenced by the teachings of Shah Waliullah, a prominent Islamic scholar who emphasized the importance of returning to the original principles of Islam.
• Barelvi traveled extensively across India and the Middle East, studying under various religious scholars. His travels and interactions with different Islamic traditions shaped his religious outlook and led to the formation of his reformist ideas.
• Barelvi’s teachings were centered around the concept of Tawhid, the oneness of God, and the rejection of practices he considered un-Islamic, such as the veneration of saints and the use of talismans. He also emphasized the importance of Jihad, or holy war, as a means to defend Islam against perceived threats.

The Socio-Religious Conditions That Led to the Rise of the Wahabi Movement

• The 19th century was a period of significant socio-religious change in India. The British colonial rule had brought about profound transformations in the socio-political landscape, which had a significant impact on the religious practices and beliefs of the Indian population.
• The influence of Western education and Christian missionary activities led to a sense of unease among many Muslims, who felt that their religious identity was under threat. This sense of unease, coupled with the perceived degeneration of Islamic practices, created a fertile ground for the emergence of the Wahabi movement.
• The movement was also a response to the socio-economic conditions of the time. The British policies had led to the impoverishment of many Muslim communities, which further fueled the sense of discontent and the desire for reform.

The Principles and Practices of the Wahabi Movement

• The Wahabi movement was characterized by its emphasis on Tawhid, the oneness of God. Barelvi and his followers rejected practices they considered un-Islamic, such as the veneration of saints, the use of talismans, and the celebration of religious festivals that were not sanctioned by the Quran and the Hadith.
• The movement also called for Jihad, or holy war, against the British colonial rule. Barelvi believed that the British were infidels who were oppressing the Muslim community, and that it was the religious duty of Muslims to rise against them.
• The movement also advocated for social and political reforms. Barelvi and his followers sought to establish an Islamic state based on the principles of the Quran and the Hadith. They also advocated for the rights of the poor and the marginalized, and sought to address the socio-economic inequalities that were prevalent at the time.

The Impact of the Wahabi Movement on Indian Society and Beyond

• The Wahabi movement had a significant impact on Indian society. It led to a revival of Islamic consciousness among many Muslims, and played a crucial role in shaping the socio-religious landscape of the time.
• The movement also had a significant political impact. The call for Jihad against the British colonial rule led to a series of uprisings, known as the Wahabi Wars, which were a significant challenge to the British authority.
• The influence of the Wahabi movement was not confined to India. Barelvi’s teachings spread to other parts of the Muslim world, including Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province (now Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in Pakistan), where they continue to influence religious and political discourses.

Criticisms and Controversies Surrounding the Wahabi Movement

• The Wahabi movement was not without its critics. Many Muslims, particularly those belonging to the Sufi and Shia traditions, opposed Barelvi’s teachings. They criticized his rejection of popular religious practices and his emphasis on Jihad.
• The movement was also criticized for its political activities. The British authorities viewed the call for Jihad as a threat to their rule and took measures to suppress the movement.
• Despite these criticisms and controversies, the Wahabi movement remains a significant chapter in the history of Islamic revivalism in India. It continues to influence contemporary religious and political discourses, both within and beyond the Indian subcontinent.

V. Comparative Analysis of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements

The Feraizi and Wahabi movements were two significant Islamic revivalist movements that emerged in the 19th century in response to the socio-political changes brought about by British colonial rule in India. While both movements shared some common features, they also had distinct ideologies, practices, and impacts.

Similarities in the Ideologies and Practices of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements

• Both the Feraizi and Wahabi movements were rooted in the concept of Islamic revivalism. They sought to renew and revitalize the Islamic faith in response to perceived threats and challenges.
• Both movements emphasized a return to the fundamentals of Islam. They advocated for strict adherence to the Quran and the Hadith, and rejected practices and beliefs that they considered to be un-Islamic or bid’ah (innovation).
• Both movements were also characterized by a strong emphasis on social justice and reform. They sought to address the socio-economic inequalities and injustices that were prevalent in the society of their time.
• Both movements were critical of the British colonial rule and its impact on the Muslim community. They saw the British rule as a threat to the Islamic identity and values, and sought to resist and challenge it in various ways.

Differences in the Ideologies and Practices of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements

• While both movements emphasized a return to the fundamentals of Islam, they had different interpretations and understandings of what this meant. The Feraizi movement, led by Haji Shariatullah, focused on the rejection of un-Islamic practices and the emphasis on monotheism. The Wahabi movement, on the other hand, led by Syed Ahmad Barelvi, emphasized the concept of Tawhid (the oneness of God) and the call for Jihad (struggle in the way of God).
• The Feraizi and Wahabi movements also differed in their approach to social reform. The Feraizi movement focused on the social reforms within the Muslim community, particularly among the peasantry. The Wahabi movement, however, had a broader social and political agenda, which included the establishment of an Islamic state.
• The two movements also had different geographical and social bases. The Feraizi movement was primarily based in Bengal and had a strong following among the rural peasantry. The Wahabi movement, on the other hand, had a wider geographical spread and had followers from various social classes.

The Socio-Political Impact of Both Movements

• Both the Feraizi and Wahabi movements had a significant socio-political impact. They challenged the British colonial rule and sought to mobilize the Muslim community against it. However, their efforts were met with resistance and repression from the colonial authorities.
• The response of the local population to the two movements was also varied. While some sections of the population supported and joined the movements, others were skeptical or hostile. The movements’ emphasis on religious orthodoxy and social reform, for instance, was not always well received by the traditional religious and social elites.
• The long-term effects of the Feraizi and Wahabi movements on Indian society were significant. They contributed to the religious, intellectual, and political awakening of the Muslim community, and laid the foundation for the emergence of modern Islamic thought and activism in India.

VI. The Feraizi and Wahabi Movements in the Context of Other Reform Movements

The Feraizi and Wahabi movements were significant Islamic reform movements in 19th century India. They emerged as responses to the socio-religious challenges of the time, particularly under British colonial rule. These movements can be compared to Hindu reform movements in Bengal, other Islamic reform movements in India, and reform movements in other parts of the world to understand their unique characteristics and the broader context of religious and social reform during the period.

The Feraizi and Wahabi Movements Compared to Hindu Reform Movements in Bengal

• Hindu reform movements in Bengal, such as the Brahmo Samaj founded in 1828, and the Ramakrishna Mission established in 1897, aimed at purifying Hinduism and adapting it to modern challenges, similar to the objectives of the Feraizi and Wahabi movements within Islam.
• Both the Feraizi and Hindu reform movements sought to eliminate what they considered to be corrupt practices and superstitions that had crept into their respective religions over centuries.
• The Brahmo Samaj, under leaders like Raja Ram Mohan Roy and later Keshub Chunder Sen, emphasized monotheism and rationalism, akin to the Feraizi movement’s emphasis on monotheism and the Wahabi movement’s stress on Tawhid (the oneness of God).
• While the Feraizi movement focused on the rights of Muslim tenants against the Zamindari system, Hindu reform movements also addressed social issues such as the abolition of Sati (widow immolation), child marriage, and the upliftment of women’s status in society.
• The Hindu reform movements were influenced by Western thought and Christian missionary activities, whereas the Feraizi and Wahabi movements were more focused on returning to pure Islamic principles, often viewing Western influences as a threat to Islamic identity.

The Feraizi and Wahabi Movements Compared to Other Islamic Reform Movements in India

• Other Islamic reform movements in India included the Ahl-i Hadith and the Aligarh Movement. The Ahl-i Hadith, like the Wahabi movement, emphasized the Hadith (sayings of the Prophet Muhammad) as the primary source of Islamic law, rejecting the authority of the four traditional schools of Islamic jurisprudence.
• The Aligarh Movement, led by Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, advocated for the adoption of Western education and scientific temper among Muslims, which was a different approach compared to the Wahabi movement’s skepticism of Western influences.
• Both the Feraizi and Wahabi movements shared with the Ahl-i Hadith a disdain for bid’ah (innovation in religious matters), but the Feraizi movement was more localized in its impact, focusing on Bengal, while the Wahabi movement had a broader geographical reach.
• The Aligarh Movement’s emphasis on rationalism and engagement with Western knowledge contrasts with the Feraizi and Wahabi movements’ focus on strict adherence to Islamic texts and skepticism of Western culture.

The Feraizi and Wahabi Movements Compared to Reform Movements in Other Parts of the World

• Globally, the 19th century was a period of religious and social reform in many parts of the world. For instance, the Protestant Reformation in Europe, which began in the 16th century, had similar themes of purifying religious practices and challenging established religious authorities.
• The Feraizi and Wahabi movements can be compared to the Salafi movement in the Arab world, which also called for a return to the practices of the salaf (the pious ancestors) and the rejection of later innovations in Islam.
• In the Ottoman Empire, the Tanzimat reforms (1839-1876) sought to modernize the state and society, similar to the socio-political reforms advocated by the Wahabi movement, although the Tanzimat was more influenced by European legal and administrative models.
• The Feraizi and Wahabi movements were part of a broader global trend of religious revivalism and reform, which included movements such as the Mahdist revolt in Sudan (1881-1898) and the Boxer Rebellion in China (1899-1901), which were responses to foreign domination and aimed at restoring traditional religious and social orders.

VII. Critique of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements

The Feraizi and Wahabi movements were significant Islamic reform movements in the 19th century with lasting impacts on the religious, social, and political landscapes of India. Both movements aimed to purify Islam and return to the fundamentals of the faith, but they also faced criticism and controversy.

The Positive and Negative Aspects of the Feraizi Movement

• Positive Aspects:
  • The Feraizi movement, led by Haji Shariatullah, played a pivotal role in purifying Islamic practices in Bengal by rejecting un-Islamic customs and promoting the core Islamic principle of Tawhid (the oneness of God).
  • It challenged the caste system and advocated for the rights of the underprivileged, contributing to social reforms and the upliftment of the marginalized sections of society.
  • The movement encouraged a sense of unity and identity among Muslims in Bengal, fostering resistance against the British colonial rule and the Zamindari system.
• Negative Aspects:
  • The movement’s strict interpretation of Islamic practices sometimes led to the alienation of Muslims who were accustomed to syncretic traditions and local customs.
  • The Feraizi movement’s confrontational stance against the British and the Zamindars led to repression and persecution of its followers.
  • The movement was criticized for its potential to incite communal tensions due to its strong opposition to Hindu customs and practices.

The Positive and Negative Aspects of the Wahabi Movement

• Positive Aspects:
  • The Wahabi movement, inspired by the teachings of Syed Ahmad Barelvi, emphasized the importance of Tawhid and sought to eliminate practices it deemed bid’ah (innovations) in Islam.
  • It called for Jihad, not just in the military sense but also as a struggle for social and political reforms, which resonated with many Muslims under colonial rule.
  • The movement played a role in awakening political consciousness among Indian Muslims and contributed to the broader struggle for independence.
• Negative Aspects:
  • The Wahabi movement’s call for Jihad was sometimes interpreted as a call for armed rebellion, which led to violent clashes with the British forces.
  • The movement’s radical approach and its rejection of Sufi traditions were seen as divisive and exclusionary by many Muslims.
  • The British labeled the movement as fanatical, which led to a crackdown on its activities and the suppression of its followers.

The Legacy of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements in Contemporary India

• Legacy of the Feraizi Movement:
  • The Feraizi movement’s emphasis on social justice and equality continues to inspire Islamic reform movements in Bengal and beyond.
  • The movement’s legacy is evident in the continued struggle against social and economic disparities faced by the Muslim community in contemporary India.
  • The Feraizi movement’s impact on the religious practices of Muslims in Bengal is still visible in the form of a more purified and monotheistic practice of Islam.
• Legacy of the Wahabi Movement:
  • The Wahabi movement’s influence can be seen in the ongoing discourse on Islamic reform and the reinterpretation of religious texts in the context of modernity.
  • The movement’s emphasis on political activism and resistance has been inherited by various Muslim political and social organizations in India.
  • The term “Wahabi” has often been misused in contemporary discourse, sometimes being wrongly associated with extremism, which overshadows the movement’s original reformist intentions.
• Contemporary Critique:
  • Both movements are subject to contemporary critique for their historical roles and their interpretations of Islam. Some argue that their approaches were too rigid and not sufficiently adaptive to the cultural diversity of Indian society.
  • Others appreciate the movements for their role in empowering the Muslim community and challenging the status quo, which laid the groundwork for future reformist and nationalist movements in India.

VIII. Conclusion

The Feraizi and Wahabi movements, which emerged in the 19th century, have left an indelible mark on the socio-religious landscape of India. These movements, led by Haji Shariatullah and Syed Ahmad Barelvi respectively, sought to purify Islam by eliminating un-Islamic practices and promoting monotheism and social reforms.

The Significance of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements in the History of India

• The Feraizi and Wahabi movements played a crucial role in shaping the socio-religious landscape of 19th century India. They emerged in response to the socio-religious conditions of the time, which were characterized by the influence of Hindu customs and British Christian missionary activities on traditional Islamic practices, and the socio-economic hardships faced by the Muslim population due to the British colonial rule and the Zamindari system.
• These movements sought to purify Islam by eliminating un-Islamic practices and promoting monotheism. They also advocated for social reforms, such as the opposition to the caste system and the promotion of the rights of the poor.
• The Feraizi and Wahabi movements also had a significant political dimension. They resisted the British rule and the Zamindari system, and advocated for the rights of the peasantry. The call for Jihad by the Wahabi movement led to a series of uprisings against the British colonial rule, known as the Wahabi Wars.

The Relevance of the Feraizi and Wahabi Movements in the Present Context

• The Feraizi and Wahabi movements continue to be relevant in the present context. They laid the foundation for the emergence of modern Islamic thought and the nationalistic movements of the 20th century.
• The teachings of Haji Shariatullah and Syed Ahmad Barelvi, particularly their emphasis on Tawhid and the rejection of un-Islamic practices, continue to influence the religious beliefs and practices of many Muslims in India and beyond.
• The social reforms advocated by these movements, such as the opposition to the caste system and the promotion of the rights of the poor, remain pertinent in the context of the ongoing efforts to address socio-economic inequalities and promote social justice.

1. Discuss the socio-religious conditions that led to the rise of the Feraizi and Wahabi movements in 19th century India. How did these conditions shape the ideologies and practices of these movements? (250 words)
2. Compare and contrast the ideologies and practices of the Feraizi and Wahabi movements. How did these similarities and differences impact their respective socio-political outcomes? (250 words)
3. Critically evaluate the positive and negative aspects of the Feraizi and Wahabi movements. How do these aspects contribute to their legacy in contemporary India? (250 words)