8.11 The beginning of revolutionary extremism in India

I. The Genesis of Revolutionary Extremism in India

Ideological Underpinnings of Revolutionary Extremism

• Exploring the influence of global revolutionary movements: The late 19th and early 20th centuries were marked by significant global upheavals that inspired Indian radicals. The Russian Revolution of 1917 showcased the power of mass mobilization against autocratic rule, serving as a beacon for Indian revolutionaries who sought to overthrow British colonialism. Similarly, the Irish Easter Rising of 1916, a rebellion against British rule in Ireland, demonstrated the potential of armed insurrection to achieve political goals, resonating with Indian nationalists disillusioned with peaceful protests.
• The disenchantment with moderate politics: The gradual disillusionment among certain sections of the Indian populace with the Indian National Congress’s moderate approach during the late 19th and early 20th centuries stemmed from the slow pace of reform and the perceived ineffectiveness of petitions and delegations to the British authorities. The Partition of Bengal in 1905, executed under Viceroy Lord Curzon, significantly contributed to this disenchantment, demonstrating the British government’s disregard for Indian public opinion and exacerbating communal tensions, thereby pushing many towards more radical methods of resistance.
• The role of the press and literature in fostering revolutionary sentiments: Publications played a crucial role in the spread of revolutionary ideas. Journals like ‘Yugantar’, established in 1906, and ‘Kesari’, led by Bal Gangadhar Tilak, were instrumental in articulating the grievances of the Indian people and promoting revolutionary activities. These publications often featured fiery editorials, patriotic poetry, and calls to arms, significantly influencing the youth of the time and laying the ideological groundwork for revolutionary extremism.

Global Events and Their Impact on Indian Revolutionaries

• The Russian Revolution provided a practical model of revolutionary change that could be adapted to the Indian context, with Lenin’s tactics inspiring Indian revolutionaries to organize more systematically and to consider the merits of armed struggle over peaceful negotiation.
• The Irish Easter Rising was particularly influential because it was a direct rebellion against British rule, similar to what many Indian revolutionaries aspired to achieve. The bravery and sacrifice of the Irish rebels, despite the uprising’s initial failure, inspired a wave of nationalism and a willingness to sacrifice among Indian revolutionaries.
• These global movements demonstrated the effectiveness of direct action and armed rebellion in challenging imperial powers, significantly influencing the strategy and tactics of Indian revolutionary groups.

Critique of Moderates’ Methods by Radicals

• Radicals criticized the moderate leadership of the Indian National Congress for their loyalty to the British crown and their faith in British justice and benevolence. Leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal, Aurobindo Ghosh, and Bal Gangadhar Tilak argued for direct action and self-reliance rather than petitioning the British for concessions.
• The moderates’ methods were seen as overly cautious and incapable of achieving significant political reform or national independence. The radicals believed that only a forceful opposition, including boycotts, strikes, and potentially armed insurrection, would compel the British to concede to Indian demands.

Analysis of Radical Publications

• ‘Yugantar’ served as a mouthpiece for revolutionary ideas, advocating for direct action against British rule and emphasizing the importance of sacrifice for the motherland. It played a critical role in popularizing revolutionary activities and inspiring many young Indians to join the cause.
• ‘Kesari’, under the editorship of Tilak, adopted a more aggressive stance against British policies and was instrumental in the Swadeshi movement’s promotion, calling for the boycott of British goods and the revival of indigenous industries.
• Both publications faced severe repression from the British authorities, with editors and contributors frequently imprisoned. Yet, they continued to circulate clandestinely, their message resonating with a growing segment of the Indian population disillusioned with British rule.

II. Profiles of revolutionary leaders and organizations

Biographical sketches of early revolutionary leaders

• Aurobindo Ghosh
  • Born in 1872, Aurobindo was initially involved with the Indian National Congress (INC) and the moderate faction before evolving into a prominent figure in the revolutionary movement.
  • His transformation from a moderate to a radical leader was marked by his active involvement in the Swadeshi movement post the Partition of Bengal in 1905.
  • Ghosh later focused on spiritual and philosophical pursuits, founding the Aurobindo Ashram in Pondicherry in 1926.
• Bipin Chandra Pal
  • Born in 1858, Pal was a key figure in the Indian independence movement and a member of the Lal-Bal-Pal trio, alongside Lala Lajpat Rai and Bal Gangadhar Tilak.
  • He played a significant role in the Swadeshi movement and was known for his advocacy of civil disobedience and direct action against British rule.
• Others
  • Other notable leaders include Bal Gangadhar Tilak, known as the Father of Indian Unrest, who advocated for Swaraj as the birthright of Indians, and Bagha Jatin (Jatindranath Mukherjee), who was instrumental in the Jugantar group’s revolutionary activities.

Formation and evolution of revolutionary organizations

• Anushilan Samiti
  • Founded in 1902, Anushilan Samiti was one of the earliest revolutionary organizations in India, primarily based in Bengal.
  • It focused on physical and military training of its members, aiming to overthrow British rule through armed revolt.
  • The organization played a significant role in the Alipore Bomb Case of 1908.
• Jugantar
  • Jugantar, an offshoot of Anushilan Samiti, was established in 1906. It became more aggressive in its tactics, involving in direct actions such as assassinations and bombings.
  • Leaders like Bagha Jatin were associated with Jugantar, which aimed at mobilizing youth for the armed struggle against the British.
• Ghadar Party
  • Founded in 1913 in San Francisco, USA, by Sohan Singh Bhakna, the Ghadar Party was composed mainly of Indian immigrants in the USA and Canada.
  • It aimed to incite a rebellion in the Indian army to overthrow British rule and was known for its international connections, especially during World War I.
  • The Ghadar Party’s significant contribution was the Ghadar Mutiny of 1915, an attempt to ignite a revolution in the British Indian Army.

Analysis of the ideologies and objectives of these organizations

• Ideological foundations
  • These organizations shared a common goal of India’s independence from British rule but varied in their methods and ideologies.
  • Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar were deeply influenced by the notions of sacrifice and armed struggle, drawing inspiration from Indian and global historical precedents.
  • The Ghadar Party combined the anti-colonial sentiment with a broader anti-imperialist outlook, seeking to collaborate with global movements against imperialism.
• Objectives
  • Immediate overthrow of British rule through armed rebellion was a common objective among these groups.
  • They aimed to inspire Indian masses and the armed forces to rise against the British Raj, using guerrilla warfare, sabotage, and assassination of key officials.
  • Beyond the immediate goal of independence, these organizations also envisioned a socially equitable and democratic India, free from foreign domination.

The transformation of Aurobindo Ghosh

• From moderate to radical
  • Aurobindo Ghosh’s political views underwent a significant transformation, initially participating in moderate politics within the INC before advocating for active resistance and later focusing on spiritual nationalism.
  • His ideological evolution is a testament to the dynamic nature of the revolutionary movement in India, reflecting a broader trend of radicalization among Indian nationalists during the early 20th century.

The foundation and operations of Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar

• Tactics and aims
  • Both organizations emphasized the need for secrecy and built a network of cells to carry out their activities, which included manufacturing bombs, conducting armed robberies to fund their operations, and targeting British officials.
  • Their operations marked a new phase in the Indian independence movement, characterized by a willingness to use violence to achieve political ends.

The Ghadar Party’s international connections

• Role in the freedom struggle
  • The Ghadar Party’s international connections were instrumental in its efforts to incite a rebellion within the Indian armed forces. It collaborated with German officials during World War I in an attempt to arm and fund a revolution in India.Despite the failure of the 1915 mutiny, the Ghadar Party’s efforts highlighted the global dimensions of the Indian independence struggle, showcasing the interconnectedness of anti-colonial movements
  worldwide.

III. Revolutionary activities and their impact on British policies

Major revolutionary acts

• Alipore Bomb Case
  • Occurred in 1908, involving the attempted assassination of a British judge in Alipore, Bengal.
  • Key figures involved were Aurobindo Ghosh and his brother Barindra Ghosh, among others.
  • The case highlighted the revolutionary movement’s willingness to adopt violent means.
• Assassination of British officials
  • Numerous high-profile assassinations marked this era, including the murder of District Magistrate Wylie by Madan Lal Dhingra in 1909.
  • Such acts were aimed at striking fear into the British administration and attracting international attention to the Indian independence cause.

The government’s response to revolutionary extremism

• Repressive measures and legislations
  • In response to growing revolutionary activities, the British government implemented several repressive measures.
  • The Rowlatt Act of 1919 allowed for the detention of suspects without trial, aimed at curtailing revolutionary activities.
  • The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919, known as the Rowlatt Act, severely restricted civil liberties and was a direct reaction to the perceived threat of revolutionary terrorism.
• Other repressive measures
  • The Defence of India Act 1915 was another significant legislation, enacted during World War I to suppress any revolutionary activities aimed at overthrowing British rule.

The impact of revolutionary activities on the Indian National Movement

• Detailed analysis of the Alipore Bomb Case
  • The Alipore Bomb Case became a rallying point for nationalists, highlighting the lengths to which revolutionaries would go to fight British rule.
  • Despite the harsh sentences meted out, the case served to inspire a generation of nationalists to consider more aggressive forms of resistance.
• The Rowlatt Act and other repressive measures
  • The enactment of the Rowlatt Act led to widespread anger and protests across India, culminating in events like the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre of 1919.
  • These repressive measures, instead of quelling revolutionary sentiment, only served to fuel the independence movement further.
• The role of revolutionary extremism in shaping the strategies of the Indian National Congress (INC)
  • The rise of revolutionary extremism forced the INC to reassess its strategies and tactics in the struggle for independence.
  • Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi adopted a more confrontational stance through the Non-Cooperation Movement (1920) and Civil Disobedience Movement (1930), which, while non-violent, were radical departures from the petitioning and delegation strategies of the early Congress.
  • The revolutionary activities, and the British response to them, underscored the limitations of moderate politics and contributed to a broader acceptance of direct action (albeit non-violent) in the nationalist strategy.

III. Revolutionary Activities and Their Impact on British Policies

Major revolutionary acts

• Alipore Bomb Case (1908)
  • Aimed at British judicial and administrative personnel, marking a significant escalation in revolutionary tactics.
  • Involved prominent figures like Aurobindo Ghosh, highlighting the intertwining of intellectual leadership and direct action.
• Assassination of British officials
  • Targeted assassinations were carried out as a direct challenge to British authority, such as the killing of district magistrate Wylie by Madan Lal Dhingra in 1909.
  • These acts were intended both to avenge injustices and to inspire Indian nationalists.

The government’s response to revolutionary extremism

• Repressive measures and legislations
  • The British administration enacted laws aimed at curtailing revolutionary activities and silencing dissent.
  • The Rowlatt Act (1919), allowed for detention without trial, exemplifying the repressive responses to perceived threats.
• Other repressive measures
  • Implementation of the Defence of India Act (1915) during World War I to suppress any revolutionary attempts against the British government.
  • Censorship and surveillance were intensified, targeting individuals and organizations suspected of anti-colonial activities.

The impact of revolutionary activities on the Indian National Movement

• Detailed analysis of the Alipore Bomb Case
  • The case brought to light the extent and depth of revolutionary networks across Bengal and beyond.
  • Its aftermath saw a significant crackdown on revolutionaries, which, paradoxically, increased public sympathy for their cause.
• The Rowlatt Act and other repressive measures
  • Sparked widespread outrage and protests across India, notably leading to the Jallianwala Bagh massacre (1919), which became a turning point in the national movement.
  • These measures inadvertently fostered a more unified resistance against British rule, transcending regional and ideological divides.
• The role of revolutionary extremism in shaping the strategies of the Indian National Congress (INC)
  • The increasingly repressive British responses to revolutionary activities forced the INC to re-evaluate its stance towards more assertive forms of protest.
  • Leaders within the Congress, influenced by the sacrifices of revolutionaries, began advocating for greater assertiveness, culminating in the endorsement of the Non-Cooperation Movement led by Mahatma Gandhi.

The political evolution of leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose

• Bose’s journey from Congress leadership to founding the Forward Bloc and leading the INA illustrates the diversification of strategies within the Indian freedom struggle.
• His ideological shift from constitutional methods to armed struggle reflects the broader impact of revolutionary extremism on the movement’s tactics.

Comparative analysis of revolutionary extremism and Gandhian mass movements

• Revolutionary extremism
  • Emphasized the overthrow of British rule through armed struggle and acts of sabotage.
  • Sought to galvanize the Indian populace through dramatic actions and martyrdom.
• Gandhian mass movements
  • Predicated on non-violent civil disobedience, satyagraha, and mass participation.
  • Aimed to undermine British legitimacy and moral authority through peaceful means.
• Impact on British policies
  • Both approaches forced the British government to adapt its policies, from conciliation to repression, in an attempt to manage the diverse challenges posed by the Indian national movement.

The role of revolutionary martyrs in shaping Indian national consciousness

• The sacrifices of figures like Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were instrumental in galvanizing public opinion against British rule.
• Their martyrdom was elevated into a powerful symbol of resistance and patriotism, influencing subsequent generations of freedom fighters and shaping the narrative of the independence movement.

IV. The ideological divergence within the Indian national movement

The philosophical and strategic differences between revolutionaries and moderates

• Revolutionaries
  • Advocated for immediate and complete independence from British rule.
  • Believed in direct action, including armed struggle, to overthrow British authority.
  • Inspired by global revolutionary movements and the effectiveness of direct action.
• Moderates
  • Aimed for gradual reforms and concessions from the British government through petitions, negotiations, and constitutional methods.
  • Believed in the British sense of justice and fairness to grant India greater self-governance over time.
  • Emphasized on building a solid foundation for future self-rule by focusing on education, economic development, and social reform.

The impact of revolutionary extremism on the Swadeshi Movement

• Swadeshi Movement initially began as a response to the Partition of Bengal in 1905, primarily advocated by moderates to promote Indian goods and boycott British products.
• Revolutionary influence transformed it into a broader mass movement, incorporating more aggressive forms of protest and public awareness campaigns against British rule.
• The incorporation of revolutionary ideas helped to expand the Swadeshi Movement beyond Bengal, making it a national phenomenon.

The debate over violence and non-violence in the struggle for independence

• Violence
  • Some factions within the Indian national movement saw violence as a necessary means to an end, justifying it as a response to British oppression and an effective way to gain international attention.
• Non-violence
  • Others, most notably led by Mahatma Gandhi, argued that non-violence (ahimsa) and civil disobedience were more moral and effective strategies, believing that winning hearts was better than inciting fear.

Comparison of the ideologies of Aurobindo Ghosh and Gopal Krishna Gokhale

• Aurobindo Ghosh
  • Transitioned from moderate to radical, advocating for passive resistance before moving towards a vision of complete independence through active resistance.
  • His philosophy combined spirituality with nationalism, believing in a divine mission for India to play a leading role in human progress.
• Gopal Krishna Gokhale
  • Championed moderate methods, emphasizing gradual reforms, fiscal conservatism, and educational advancements.
  • Advocated for a conciliatory approach towards the British, focusing on dialogue and legislative efforts to achieve political reforms.

Analysis of the role of revolutionary activities in the expansion of the Swadeshi Movement

• Revolutionary activities, including protests, boycotts, and the burning of British goods, galvanized public support and participation across different social strata.
• The movement’s shift towards more radical approaches helped to politicize and mobilize masses, significantly broadening its scope and impact.

The influence of revolutionary extremism on Mahatma Gandhi’s strategies

• While Mahatma Gandhi staunchly advocated for non-violence, the revolutionary zeal and sacrifices made by extremists influenced the intensity and urgency of his campaigns.
• Gandhi’s strategies, though non-violent, incorporated elements of direct action and civil disobedience that were energized by the revolutionary spirit pervading the national movement.

V. The global context of revolutionary extremism in India

The impact of World War I on revolutionary activities in India

• World War I as a catalyst
  • Created global unrest and opportunities for Indian revolutionaries.
  • British resources were stretched thin, providing a strategic advantage to revolutionary activities.
• The Ghadar Party
  • Founded in 1913 in San Francisco by Sohan Singh Bhakna.
  • Comprised mainly of Indian immigrants in the USA and Canada.
  • Aimed to incite rebellion among Indian soldiers of the British army.
• The Berlin Committee
  • Formed in Germany in 1914.
  • Sought German support for Indian independence.
  • Played a key role in planning the Ghadar Conspiracy, intending to trigger a mutiny in the British Indian Army.

The international networks and support for the Indian revolutionary movement

• Global alliances
  • Indian revolutionaries established connections with anti-colonial movements and governments hostile to the British Empire.
• North America and Europe
  • Significant revolutionary activities among the Indian diaspora, particularly in the United States, Canada, and Germany.
  • Facilitated arms procurement and financial support for the freedom struggle.
• Collaboration with foreign powers
  • Indian revolutionaries sought support from Germany, Japan, and other countries during both World Wars, aiming to weaken British control over India.

The legacy of revolutionary extremism in the global context of anti-colonial struggles

• Role in international anti-colonial movements
  • Indian revolutionary movements inspired anti-colonial struggles worldwide, sharing strategies, ideologies, and support.
• Comparative analysis with other movements
  • Similarities with movements in Ireland, Egypt, and Vietnam, where local populations fought against imperial powers.
  • Shared tactics such as guerrilla warfare, international lobbying, and forming global alliances.
• Influence on global anti-imperialist sentiments
  • The Indian revolutionary movement contributed to a broader discourse on colonialism and imperialism, influencing international policies and perspectives.

The role of Indian revolutionaries in North America and Europe

• Mobilization of the Indian diaspora
  • Organizations like the Ghadar Party mobilized expatriate Indians, advocating for armed rebellion against the British Raj.
  • Publications and propaganda efforts in foreign lands raised awareness and funds for the cause.
• Engagement with foreign governments
  • Attempts to secure support from countries at odds with Britain, leveraging international geopolitics to India’s advantage.

The collaboration between Indian revolutionaries and foreign powers against British rule

• Strategic alliances
  • Collaborations aimed at securing arms, funds, and political support.
  • Notable alliances with Germany during World War I and attempts to engage with Japan and other Axis powers during World War II.
• Impact on British policies
  • The international dimension of the Indian revolutionary movement forced the British government to allocate resources to counter these activities globally, affecting their colonial administration.

Comparative analysis of the Indian revolutionary movement with other anti-colonial movements in Asia and Africa

• Shared goals and strategies
  • Common objectives of ending colonial rule and achieving national sovereignty.
  • Utilization of both diplomatic channels and armed struggle to attain freedom.
• Differences in context and execution
  • Varied success rates, influenced by regional geopolitics, colonial policies, and international support.
  • The Indian movement’s extensive use of international networks and propaganda distinguished it from some other movements.

VI. The transition from revolutionary extremism to mass movements

The transformation of revolutionary leaders and their adoption of mass politics

• Subhas Chandra Bose
  • Initially a member of the Indian National Congress, Bose grew disillusioned with Gandhi’s non-violent approach.
  • Founded the Forward Bloc in 1939, advocating for a more aggressive stance against British rule.
  • His leadership in the Indian National Army (INA) epitomized the shift towards militant nationalism, seeking to overthrow British rule through armed struggle.
• Evolution of strategies
  • Many revolutionary leaders transitioned from covert operations to more visible political activism, engaging in mass mobilizations and public demonstrations.
  • This shift was partly due to the realization that mass movements could exert significant pressure on the British government and rally widespread public support for independence.

The influence of revolutionary extremism on the Non-Cooperation and Civil Disobedience Movements

• Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922)
  • While led by Gandhi’s principles of non-violence, the movement was significantly influenced by the revolutionary fervor of the time, attracting participants from various factions of the independence struggle.
  • The movement’s call for the boycott of British goods and institutions resonated with the revolutionary ethos of self-reliance and resistance.
• Civil Disobedience Movement (1930-1934)
  • Gandhi’s decision to launch the Civil Disobedience Movement was partly a response to the growing clamor for more decisive action against British rule, reflecting the influence of revolutionary extremism.
  • The movement involved the refusal to obey certain laws, demands, and commands of the British government, embodying the defiance that revolutionaries advocated.

The role of revolutionary martyrs in shaping Indian national consciousness

• Bhagat Singh
  • His execution in 1931 became a rallying cry for Indian independence, symbolizing the ultimate sacrifice for freedom.
  • Singh’s embrace of martyrdom inspired countless Indians to join the freedom struggle, elevating him to a near-mythical status.
• Cultural and symbolic significance
  • Martyrs like Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev, and Rajguru were immortalized in Indian memory through songs, films, and literature, deeply embedding their ideals in the national consciousness.
  • Their legacy influenced subsequent generations of freedom fighters and continues to inspire social and political movements in India today.

Comparison of the methodologies of revolutionary extremism and Gandhian mass movements

• Revolutionary extremism
  • Advocated for armed rebellion and direct action against British authorities.
  • Sought immediate independence through any means necessary, including violence.
• Gandhian mass movements
  • Based on principles of non-violence, civil disobedience, and satyagraha.
  • Aimed to achieve independence through peaceful means, moral superiority, and mass participation.
• Table: Methodologies Comparison
  • Objective: Revolutionary extremism sought swift overthrow of British rule; Gandhian movements aimed for gradual, ethical liberation.
  • Means: Armed struggle versus non-violent resistance.
  • Public Involvement: Selective recruitment in revolutionary groups compared to mass mobilization in Gandhian movements.
  • Impact: Both approaches significantly weakened British control and contributed to the independence movement, albeit through different pathways.

The transition from revolutionary extremism to mass movements marked a critical phase in India’s struggle for independence. Leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose adapted and expanded upon revolutionary ideals, influencing large-scale political actions and integrating these principles into broader, more inclusive campaigns for freedom. The martyrdom of revolutionaries like Bhagat Singh played a pivotal role in galvanizing the Indian populace, infusing the national movement with a spirit of sacrifice and determination. This period underscored the dynamic interplay between various forms of resistance against colonial rule, highlighting the evolution of India’s fight for sovereignty from clandestine operations to widespread civil unrest and political activism.

1. Analyze the impact of global revolutionary movements on the ideological shift towards extremism in India’s freedom struggle. (250 words)
2. Discuss the role of revolutionary martyrs in shaping the national consciousness and their influence on subsequent mass movements in India. (250 words)
3. Compare and contrast the methodologies of revolutionary extremism and Gandhian mass movements in the context of the Indian independence struggle. (250 words)