9.10 National politics from the end of the Non-cooperation movement to the beginning of the Civil Disobedience movement

I. Introduction to the Interwar Period in Indian Nationalism

Overview of the Indian Political Scenario Post-Non-cooperation Movement

• Following the suspension of the Non-cooperation Movement in 1922 by Mahatma Gandhi after the Chauri Chaura incident, the Indian freedom struggle entered a new phase, marked by introspection and ideological diversification among the ranks of the Indian National Congress (INC).
• The period saw the rise of various groups within the Congress, with differing ideologies and methods of achieving self-rule, leading to the formation of the Swaraj Party in 1923 by Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das, advocating for a return to council politics under the colonial government.
• Communal politics also gained momentum during this period, with the Muslim League and the Hindu Mahasabha becoming more prominent, indicating a deepening of communal divides, partly as a consequence of the British policy of divide and rule.
• Economic hardships, exacerbated by the global Great Depression starting in 1929, led to increased unrest and new forms of resistance, laying the groundwork for future movements.

The Impact of the Non-cooperation Movement on Subsequent Political Strategies

• The Non-cooperation Movement showcased the potential of mass mobilization and non-violent protest, setting a precedent for future strategies of the Indian freedom struggle.
• The movement’s abrupt halt led to widespread disillusionment among nationalists, prompting a reevaluation of political strategies and the exploration of alternative avenues for achieving swaraj (self-rule).
• This period saw a significant shift towards constructive work, with leaders like Gandhi emphasizing social reform, education, and self-sufficiency as essential components of the national movement, influencing subsequent political activities and strategies.

Shifts in Political Allegiances and the Emergence of New Leaders

• The interwar period was characterized by significant shifts in political allegiances, with new leaders and groups emerging on the national stage, reflecting a broader spectrum of political thought and methodology.
• Leaders such as Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, and Subhas Chandra Bose began to play more prominent roles, each contributing their perspectives and shaping the future course of the national movement.
• This era also saw the emergence of radical and socialist ideas, with the formation of groups like the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association (HSRA) in 1928, advocating for more direct action and the overthrow of British rule.

The Role of the Indian National Congress in the Transition Period

• The Indian National Congress remained the principal political organization leading the freedom struggle, albeit with growing internal divisions and debates over the direction and methods of the movement.
• The annual sessions of the Congress during this period were key events where strategies were debated, resolutions were passed, and the leadership for the upcoming year was elected, reflecting the evolving dynamics and ideological currents within the party.
• The Congress’s efforts to reconcile the diverse political demands within its ranks and to present a united front against colonial rule were critical in maintaining its position as the foremost nationalist organization, despite challenges and the emergence of alternative political platforms.

The British Government’s Response to Indian Political Activities

• The British government’s response to the changing political landscape in India was marked by a mix of repression, reforms, and attempts to co-opt certain sections of the Indian political spectrum.
• The enactment of the Simon Commission in 1927, ostensibly to consider constitutional reforms, was met with widespread protests across India due to the absence of any Indian members, illustrating the growing chasm between colonial authorities and Indian aspirations.
• The Government of India Act 1935, despite being a significant piece of legislation aimed at introducing a degree of federalism and provincial autonomy, was seen by many Indian leaders as too little, too late, and was criticized for its provisions that continued to safeguard British interests and for perpetuating communal divisions through separate electorates.

II. The ideological shift and diversification of the Indian national movement

Analysis of the changing political strategies post-Non-cooperation Movement

• Post-1922, the Indian National Congress (INC) and its affiliates began reevaluating their strategies in the wake of the Non-cooperation Movement’s suspension.
• The emphasis shifted from outright non-cooperation to a more nuanced approach involving selective cooperation with the British, aimed at securing incremental gains.
• The period witnessed a greater focus on constitutional reform and legislative engagement, inspired by the belief that working within the system could be used to the advantage of the nationalist cause.
• Grassroots movements focusing on education, economic self-reliance, and social reform gained momentum as complementary strategies to political agitation.

Emergence of Swaraj Party: formation, objectives, and impact

• The Swaraj Party was formed in 1923 by Motilal Nehru and Chittaranjan Das, as a faction within the INC that advocated for ending the boycott of legislative councils.
• Objectives included contesting elections to the colonial legislative councils to voice Indian grievances from within the system and obstructing colonial governance through legislative means.
• The party had a significant impact on Indian politics by bringing nationalist concerns to legislative forums, thereby setting the stage for future political engagement under British colonial rule.
• Despite internal conflicts and limited electoral success, the Swaraj Party marked a crucial ideological shift towards parliamentary politics within the broader nationalist movement.

Growth of communalism as a political tool: the rise of Hindu Mahasabha and Muslim League

• The period saw the rise of communalism as a significant factor in Indian politics, with the Hindu Mahasabha and the Muslim League gaining prominence.
• The Hindu Mahasabha, established in 1915, sought to protect the rights of Hindus and promote Hindu values, often positioning itself in opposition to the perceived concessions made to Muslims by the British and the INC.
• The Muslim League, which had been founded in 1906, became more assertive in demanding specific protections and concessions for Muslims, culminating in the demand for separate electorates and eventually the creation of Pakistan.
• Communalism served as a tool for both British colonial authorities and Indian political factions to mobilize support among religious lines, complicating the struggle for independence.

Comparison of ideological differences between Congress and emerging political parties

Critique of the role of British policies in fueling communal tensions

• British colonial policies, notably the implementation of separate electorates under the Morley-Minto Reforms (1909) and later expansions, are often critiqued for exacerbating communal divisions in India.
• The divide and rule strategy was a deliberate British policy aimed at weakening the national movement by fostering distrust and division among different religious communities.
• British support for communal parties and leaders who were willing to cooperate with the colonial administration further deepened communal rifts, setting the stage for partition.
• This period highlights the intricate dynamics between nationalist movements, emerging communal identities, and colonial strategies, underscoring the complexity of India’s path towards independence.

III. Economic policies and their impact on national politics

Examination of British economic policies and their impact on Indian society

• British economic policies in India were primarily designed to benefit the colonial power, often at the expense of the Indian economy.
  • Land revenue systems like the Permanent Settlement, Ryotwari, and Mahalwari were implemented, leading to over-assessment and peasant indebtedness.
  • The drain of wealth theory, proposed by Dadabhai Naoroji, highlighted how wealth was being transferred from India to Britain, impoverishing the Indian subcontinent.
  • Deindustrialization and the destruction of local industries due to the influx of British manufactured goods left artisans and weavers jobless, leading to economic decline in urban centers.
  • The promotion of cash crops over subsistence farming under British policies led to food shortages and famines.

The role of economic grievances in shaping political movements

• Economic grievances played a crucial role in fueling dissatisfaction and rebellion against British rule.
  • Peasant revolts were frequently triggered by oppressive taxation and land revenue demands.
  • The Swadeshi Movement (1905-1908), as part of the anti-partition movement against the division of Bengal, advocated for the boycott of British goods and the promotion of Indian-made products, marking the beginning of economic nationalism.
  • Labour movements in the early 20th century were often reactions to poor working conditions, low wages, and the exploitation of Indian workers in industries controlled by British interests.

Analysis of the development of indigenous industries and swadeshi enterprises post-Non-cooperation

• The Non-cooperation Movement (1920-1922) had a significant impact on the development of indigenous industries and swadeshi enterprises as it promoted economic self-reliance.
  • Entrepreneurs and nationalists founded companies and industries that aimed to produce goods domestically, reducing dependency on British imports.
  • The establishment of educational institutions and research institutes aimed at promoting technical and scientific knowledge to support indigenous industries.
  • Khadi and village industries were promoted by Mahatma Gandhi as a way to provide employment to millions of Indians, also becoming a symbol of resistance against British rule.

The impact of global economic events on India: the Great Depression and its repercussions on Indian agriculture and industry

• The Great Depression (1929-1939) had a profound impact on the Indian economy, exacerbating existing economic difficulties.
  • Agricultural prices collapsed, leading to widespread distress among peasants who relied on cash crops for their livelihood.
  • The decline in demand for jute, cotton, and other raw materials from India severely affected the export-oriented sectors of the Indian economy.
  • Industrial production suffered due to decreased demand both domestically and internationally, leading to unemployment and industrial unrest.

Critique of Indian leaders’ responses to economic challenges

• Indian leaders responded to the economic challenges posed by British colonialism and global events with a mix of criticism, protest, and constructive action.
  • Leaders like Dadabhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade, and R.C. Dutt critiqued British economic policies for their detrimental impact on India, laying the groundwork for economic nationalism.
  • The call for boycott and swadeshi was a direct response to economic exploitation, aiming to revive domestic industries and reduce reliance on British goods.
  • Efforts to promote agrarian reform and support for the rural economy were part of the broader nationalist strategy to address the economic grievances of the masses.
  • The establishment of banks, such as the Punjab National Bank (1894), and insurance companies by nationalists provided the financial infrastructure to support Indian businesses and industries.
• Despite these efforts, Indian leaders faced challenges in addressing the full scope of economic exploitation and its impacts, partly due to the limitations imposed by colonial rule and the global economic context.

IV. Evolution of protest tactics and political mobilization

Shift from non-cooperation to new forms of protest

• After the Non-cooperation Movement ended abruptly in 1922, Indian nationalists began exploring and adopting a broader range of protest tactics beyond mere non-cooperation.
  • Civil Disobedience emerged as a key strategy, with Gandhi leading the Salt March in 1930 as a direct act of defiance against the British salt tax.
  • Labor strikes and boycotts became more common, targeting British goods and institutions directly to hurt the colonial economy.

Analysis of regional movements and their contribution to national politics

• Regional movements played a significant role in shaping the national freedom struggle, bringing unique local issues into the broader fight against British rule.
  • The Eka Movement in Uttar Pradesh and the Bardoli Satyagraha in Gujarat are examples of how localized grievances against high taxes and land revenue demands could galvanize wider support.
  • These movements not only pressured the British at a local level but also contributed to a sense of national unity against colonial oppression.

The role of youth, students, and women in revitalizing the national movement

• Young people, students, and women brought new energy and perspectives to the freedom struggle, significantly expanding the base and scope of protest activities.
  • Youth and student organizations like the All India Students Federation (AISF), founded in 1936, played a crucial role in mobilizing against British policies.
  • Women, who had been largely sidelined in earlier movements, stepped into leadership roles, organizing protests, and participating in marches. Figures like Sarojini Naidu and Kamaladevi Chattopadhyay became prominent leaders.
  • The participation of these groups broadened the social base of the freedom movement, making it more inclusive and diverse.

Comparison of protest tactics used during Non-cooperation and towards Civil Disobedience

The impact of international events on Indian protest strategies: influence of Irish and Russian revolutions

• International events, particularly the Irish and Russian revolutions, had a profound influence on Indian protest strategies and political thought.
  • The Irish struggle for independence inspired Indian leaders with its successful use of guerrilla warfare and political negotiations, emphasizing the potential of direct action and political diplomacy.
  • The Russian Revolution introduced Indian intellectuals and activists to socialist and communist ideologies, encouraging a more radical approach to both social reform and national liberation.
  • These international movements provided Indian nationalists with new frameworks for resistance, influencing the evolution of protest tactics from strictly non-violent non-cooperation to include civil disobedience and other forms of direct action.

V. The influence of socio-religious reform movements on national politics

The intertwining of socio-religious reform with national politics

• Socio-religious reform movements in India played a crucial role in the evolution of national consciousness and politics, blending spiritual renewal with political activism.
  • Rabindranath Tagore emphasized universal humanism and criticized nationalism that led to parochialism and division, advocating for a synthesis of Western modernity and Indian spiritual tradition.
  • Swami Vivekananda contributed significantly by promoting a revitalized Hinduism that was both progressive and inclusive, inspiring a sense of pride and unity among Indians against colonial rule.
  • The Brahmo Samaj, founded in 1828 by Raja Ram Mohan Roy, aimed at purging Hinduism of its social evils and was pivotal in initiating social and religious reforms, influencing both the cultural and political spheres.
  • The Arya Samaj, established by Swami Dayananda Saraswati in 1875, vehemently promoted the return to the Vedas, advocating for a monotheistic Hinduism and played a significant role in educational and social reform, contributing to the growing anti-colonial sentiment.

Analysis of the impact of reform movements on communal relations and national identity

• Reform movements had a dual impact on communal relations and the forging of a national identity in India.
  • On one hand, movements like the Brahmo Samaj and Arya Samaj worked towards eradicating caste distinctions and untouchability, promoting social unity that transcended religious and caste barriers.
  • However, the emphasis on religious and cultural revival sometimes intensified communal identities, leading to an inadvertent hardening of Hindu-Muslim divisions in certain contexts.
  • The Shuddhi (purification) and Sangathan (consolidation) movements initiated by Arya Samaj, aimed at re-converting individuals to Hinduism and strengthening Hindu community bonds, had complex impacts on Hindu-Muslim relations.

Critique of the effectiveness of these movements in supporting or undermining the national movement

• The effectiveness of socio-religious reform movements in supporting the national movement is a subject of historical debate.
  • Positive contributions include the promotion of education, gender equality, and the fight against social ills like caste discrimination, which laid a foundational base for the broader nationalist struggle.
  • Leaders like Vivekananda inspired a generation of freedom fighters by instilling a sense of pride and purpose rooted in India’s spiritual heritage, directly influencing the ideological underpinnings of the Indian independence movement.
  • However, critics argue that by focusing on religious and cultural revival, these movements sometimes contributed to sectarian identities that complicated the Congress-led efforts to maintain a unified front against British rule.
  • The reform movements’ impact on national politics was thus multifaceted, contributing both to the consolidation of a collective Indian identity and to the accentuation of religious and communal divides.

VI. Reconfiguration of Indian political landscape

Detailed study of the reorganization of the Indian National Congress: leadership, policies, and strategies

• The Indian National Congress (INC) underwent significant reorganization in response to evolving political challenges and the need to accommodate diverse political ideologies within its fold.
  • Leadership transitions saw the rise of leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose, who brought fresh perspectives on socialism and radical action against British rule.
  • Policies and strategies evolved to include a greater emphasis on complete independence (Purna Swaraj), economic self-reliance, and social reform, marking a shift from the earlier moderate stance of seeking dominion status within the British Empire.
  • The Congress Sessions, such as the Lahore Session of 1929, were pivotal in adopting resolutions that reflected these ideological shifts and in mobilizing public support for the freedom struggle.

The emergence and impact of regional political parties and leaders

• Regional political parties and charismatic leaders emerged as significant forces, articulating local grievances and aspirations within the broader context of the national freedom movement.
  • Parties like the Justice Party in Madras and the Unionist Party in Punjab played crucial roles in addressing regional issues, such as caste discrimination and agrarian distress, respectively.
  • Leaders such as E.V. Ramasamy (Periyar) in Madras and the Akali leaders in Punjab championed specific social reforms and autonomy, influencing both regional and national political discourses.

Analysis of the British government’s constitutional reforms as a response to political agitation: Simon Commission and its aftermath

• The British government’s attempt to placate Indian political demands led to a series of constitutional reforms, which were often seen as inadequate by Indian leaders.
  • The Simon Commission (1927), constituted to review the constitutional situation in India, was boycotted by Indian political parties due to the absence of Indian members in the commission.
  • The aftermath of the Simon Commission’s report led to the Round Table Conferences and eventually to the enactment of the Government of India Act 1935, which introduced provincial autonomy but failed to satisfy Indian aspirations for self-rule and was criticized for its provisions for separate electorates.

The role of international diplomacy in Indian politics: Commonwealth discussions, League of Nations’ influence

• International diplomacy and affiliations played a growing role in the Indian nationalist movement, influencing both strategy and international support.
  • Indian leaders, including Nehru, leveraged Commonwealth discussions to highlight India’s quest for independence and to garner international sympathy and support against British colonial policies.
  • The League of Nations, as a precursor to the United Nations, provided a platform for Indian leaders to bring attention to the injustices of colonial rule, although its impact was limited by the geopolitical realities of the time.
  • International support and diplomatic efforts were instrumental in putting pressure on the British government and in legitimizing the Indian struggle for independence on the global stage.

VII. Prelude to Civil Disobedience

Detailed examination of the factors leading to the Civil Disobedience Movement

The Civil Disobedience Movement, initiated in 1930, was a culmination of several factors that highlighted the Indian populace’s growing discontent with British rule. Key factors included:

• Failure of the Simon Commission: The all-British Simon Commission, meant to assess constitutional reform in India, was met with nationwide protests for not including any Indian representatives.
• Nehru Report (1928): The report proposed constitutional reforms that were rejected by the British, leading to disillusionment among Indians.
• Lahore Congress (1929): The Indian National Congress’s declaration of Purna Swaraj (complete independence) as its goal set the stage for a mass movement to achieve this aim.
• Economic hardships: The Great Depression’s impact on the Indian economy exacerbated the plight of peasants and farmers, increasing public unrest and readiness to protest.

Analysis of the Salt Satyagraha as a turning point in Indian nationalism

The Salt Satyagraha, initiated by Gandhi in March 1930, marked a significant turning point in the Indian struggle for independence:

• Symbolic act of defiance: Gandhi’s march to Dandi to produce salt was a direct action against the British monopoly on salt production, symbolizing resistance against British economic policies.
• Mass mobilization: The Satyagraha mobilized millions across the country, transcending class, caste, and religious boundaries, and demonstrated the effectiveness of non-violent protest.
• International attention: The Salt March garnered significant international media attention, highlighting the Indian independence struggle on the global stage and increasing pressure on the British government.

The role of Gandhi and other leaders in strategizing the movement

Gandhi’s leadership was pivotal in strategizing the Civil Disobedience Movement:

• Non-violence (Ahimsa): Gandhi’s insistence on non-violent protest formed the core of the movement’s strategy, aiming to morally delegitimize British rule.
• Mass participation: Gandhi and other leaders worked to involve people from all walks of life, making it a truly national movement.
• Decentralized protests: Leaders encouraged localized protests across India, allowing regions to choose their own methods of civil disobedience, which diversified the movement’s impact.

Comparison of public response and participation in Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience

Critique of British responses to Indian political movements and their impact on the trajectory of Indian nationalism

The British response to the Civil Disobedience Movement was marked by repression and attempts to negotiate under pressure:

• Repression: The British resorted to arrests, violence, and suppression of protests, which only galvanized more support for the independence movement among the Indian populace.
• Negotiations and concessions: Faced with unyielding protests and international attention, the British government was forced into negotiations, evidenced by the Gandhi-Irwin Pact of 1931, which, though seen as a compromise, demonstrated the effectiveness of the movement.
• Impact on Indian nationalism: The British response inadvertently strengthened Indian nationalism, showcasing the British Empire’s moral and political vulnerabilities and uniting various sections of Indian society against colonial rule.

VIII. Conclusion

Synthesis of the transformations in Indian national politics

• The period between the end of the Non-cooperation Movement in 1922 and the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 was marked by significant transformations in the landscape of Indian national politics.
  • Ideological diversification within the Indian National Congress led to the embrace of a broader spectrum of political strategies, from parliamentary participation to direct action.
  • Emergence of regional political forces and leaders, highlighting local grievances within the national narrative, expanded the base of the independence movement.
  • Socio-religious reform movements intertwined with political agendas, influencing the moral and ethical underpinnings of the struggle for independence.
  • Increased political engagement of previously marginalized groups, including women, youth, and the working class, enriched the movement’s diversity and resilience.

Reflection on the enduring impacts of this period

• The period laid foundational strategies and ideologies that would shape the later stages of the Indian independence struggle.
  • Non-violent civil disobedience, as epitomized by the Salt Satyagraha, became a hallmark of Indian resistance against colonial rule.
  • Political unity and mass mobilization efforts during this time set precedents for subsequent campaigns against the British, fostering a sense of national identity and collective purpose.
  • The negotiation tactics and international diplomacy efforts of Indian leaders during this era opened new avenues for India’s engagement on the global stage, paving the way for post-independence foreign policy.

Assessment of the historical significance of this era

• The era between the Non-cooperation and Civil Disobedience movements is historically significant for several reasons:
  • It represents a period of political experimentation and innovation, where different strategies and ideologies were tested and refined.
  • This time was crucial in building a broad-based national movement that included diverse social, economic, and cultural elements, making the struggle for independence a truly mass movement.
  • The developments during this period influenced subsequent phases of the freedom struggle, including the Quit India Movement of 1942 and the final push towards independence in 1947.
  • On a broader scale, the era contributed significantly to the development of modern Indian nationalism, shaping the contours of India’s democratic and secular ethos in the post-independence era.

The transformations in Indian national politics from the end of the Non-cooperation Movement to the beginning of the Civil Disobedience Movement were pivotal in the country’s journey towards independence. This period of intense political activity, ideological diversification, and mass mobilization not only shaped the immediate tactics and strategies of the Indian independence struggle but also laid the groundwork for the nation’s future democratic principles and policies.

1. Analyze the impact of the Swaraj Party’s formation on the Indian National Movement’s strategy and objectives. (250 words)
2. Discuss the role of economic policies and the Great Depression in shaping the political landscape of India in the late 1920s and early 1930s. (250 words)
3. Evaluate the effectiveness of socio-religious reform movements in influencing the trajectory of the Indian National Movement during the interwar period. (250 words)