Areal differentiation, regional synthesis, Dichotomy and dualism

Development of Geography as a Subject

What Influenced the Development of Geography?

• Geography developed as a subject influenced by the ideas, philosophies, and contributions of various thinkers across different time periods.

How Geography Studies?

• Objective: The primary aim is to understand the relationship between humans and the Earth, which makes human life possible.
• Perspective/Approach: The study of geography involves different perspectives, such as the interaction between man and nature and the impact of human activities on the environment.
• Method: Geography uses different methods such as observation, inductive reasoning, map-making, and scientific inquiry.

Eratosthenes’ Definition of Geography

• Eratosthenes, a Greek scholar, was the first to coin the term “Geography,” defining it as the “study of Earth as the home of man.”

Geography: Chorology and Chronology

• Chorology: The study of the specifics of a place.
• Chronology: Tracing events over time.

Timeline of Geographic Development

Phase of Classical Antiquity

Greek Contributions (6th B.C. – 2nd-3rd B.C.)

• Homer: An early writer who authored “Iliad,” which described the Trojan War.
• Thales & Alexander: Pioneers in mathematical geography who attempted to create maps.
• Herodotus: Traveled along the Mediterranean coast and made significant contributions to the knowledge of geography.
• Hecataeus: Wrote “Ges Periods,” one of the first comprehensive books on physical geography.
• Plato: Considered one of the first scientific philosophers. He proposed that Earth is spherical and that human activities can impact nature. He introduced the concept of divine purpose (School of Teleology).
• Aristotle: Proved Earth’s sphericity through inductive reasoning and is considered the father of this reasoning approach.
• Eratosthenes: Coined “Geography” and defined it as the “study of Earth as the home of man.” He calculated Earth’s circumference and classified it into three climatic zones: Tropical, Torrid, and Frigid.
• Hipparchus: Introduced the division of a circle into 360 degrees.

Roman Contributions (1st-5th A.D.)

• Pompeius Strabo: Wrote “Geographica,” an encyclopedia on Europe, Asia, and Africa. He emphasized the importance of geography for conquests, administration, and governance.
• Ptolemy: A genius in mathematics who developed techniques for making maps using a conical method. He authored “Almagest,” an encyclopedia on map-making.

The Middle/Dark Age (Arabs’ Contribution) (500-600 A.D. to 1200-1300 A.D.)

• This period saw a decline in scientific thinking in Europe. The Arabs contributed significantly to geography during this time, especially in travel, mathematics, the study of rivers, climate, and the process of denudation.
• Al-Masudi: Discovered the monsoon winds.
• Ibn Khaldun: Regarded as one of the first environmental determinists.
• Ibn Hawqal: Proved that the equator was habitable.
• Al-Maqdisi: Demonstrated that climate varies not only with latitude but also with whether a place is on the Eastern or Western side.

European Renaissance and the Age of Voyages (12th-15th Century)

• Portuguese King Henry (the Navigator) initiated voyages that led to the discovery of new places, races, and societies. Map-making advanced significantly, with Gerardus Mercator producing the famous “Mercator projection.”
• Knowledge about Earth expanded greatly during this time.

Pre-Classical Geography

• Geography as a Discipline: Acknowledged the concepts of Dualism and Dichotomy.
• Bernard Varenius (1650): Emphasized the interdependence of two aspects of geography – General/Systematic Geography and Special/Regional Geography.
• Immanuel Kant (1750): Defined geography as “special geography” and introduced the concept of Exceptionalism in Geography.

Classical Geography and the Emergence of Geography as a Modern Subject

• Alexander Humboldt & Carl Ritter: In the early and mid-19th century, they made geography a modern subject by defining it as the organic unity of nature. They emphasized geography as a scientific discipline influenced by positivism. Humboldt authored “Kosmos,” while Ritter wrote “Erdkunde.”

Debates in Geography

Dichotomy vs. Dualism

• Dichotomy: Refers to the two aspects of studying geography, where one aspect is emphasized over the other.
• Dualism: Refers to two aspects being equally important in studying geography.
• Varenius: Suggested that human aspects of special geography cannot be generalized.
• Kant: Asserted that man and nature cannot be separated in geographical studies.
• Ritter: Believed that man occupies a superior position within nature.

Determinism vs. Possibilism

Determinism

• Geocratic School: Nature controls humans (Environmental Determinism).
• Theocratic School: Divine forces control humans (Teleological Determinism).
• Viocratic School: Humans control nature (Possibilism).
• Notable Determinists:
• Plato and Aristotle: Introduced the concept of climate shaping personalities.
• Humboldt & Ritter: Emphasized the organic unity of nature.
• Mackinder and Malthus: Used determinism in political and strategic interpretations.

Possibilism

• Emerged as a reaction to determinism, suggesting that humans actively shape their environment.
• Comte de Buffon: Claimed humans have the power to transform Earth.
• Vidal de la Blache and Lucian Febvre: Popularized Possibilism, emphasizing that humans are not passive beings.

Physical Geography vs. Human Geography

• Physical Geography: Focuses on Earth’s natural features and processes.
• Oscar Peschel: Advocated geography as an empirical science.
• Immanuel Kant: Focused on systematic geography.
• Human Geography: Examines human activities and their impact on Earth.
• Jean Brunhes: Defined human geography as concerning human activities, habitation, agriculture, and environmental changes.

Developments in Geography up to the 18th Century

History of Geography and Physical Geography

Introduction to the Evolution of Geography

• Geography has a long history, evolving over time and across different civilizations.
• It developed from early map-making and exploration into a comprehensive discipline that examines natural and human phenomena in a spatial context.
• The historical evolution of geography sheds light on its nature, character, and methodology, providing insights into the development of physical geography.

Contributions of the Greeks and Romans

• Early Beginnings (More than 4,000 years ago):
  • The earliest geographical studies aimed to map features and places observed by explorers.
  • Civilizations such as the Chinese, Egyptians, and Phoenicians explored areas within and beyond their homelands.
  • Archaeological discoveries, such as the Babylonian clay tablet map dating back to 2300 BC, indicate early attempts at geographical documentation.
• Greek Contributions:
  • The Greeks were the first to practice geography beyond mere cartography, focusing on the spatial nature of human and physical features.
  • Greek philosophers were interested in the form, size, and geometry of the Earth.
• Key Greek Geographers:
  • Herodotus (circa 484-425 BC): Described the human and physical geography of various regions of the Persian Empire.
  • Aristotle (circa 384-322 BC): Scientifically demonstrated that the Earth was spherical based on observations of lunar eclipses.
  • Eratosthenes (circa 276-194 BC): Calculated Earth’s equatorial circumference with remarkable accuracy (40,233 km) using simple geometric relationships.
  • Strabo (circa 64-20 AD): Wrote “Geographia,” detailing the cultural geography of societies from Britain to India. He suggested that geography should describe known parts of the inhabited world and assess the differences between countries.
  • Ptolemy (circa 100-178 AD): Authored “Geographike Hyphegesis” (Guide to Geography), developed three methods for projecting Earth’s surface, calculated coordinates for 8,000 places, and introduced geographical latitude and longitude.

Geography During the Middle Ages

• This period marked a time of intellectual stagnation in Europe.
• In contrast, Arab scholars preserved and expanded upon Greek and Roman geographical knowledge. They translated ancient texts and contributed to the field.
• Notable Arab Intellectuals:
  • Al-Idrisi, Ibn Battutah, and Ibn Khaldun made significant contributions to geography, enriching it with their observations and writings.

The Renaissance Period (1400 to 1600)

• The Renaissance marked a time of renewed interest in exploration and geographical studies.
• Numerous explorers, such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan, contributed to the understanding of Earth’s geography through their voyages.
• Martin Behaim (1492): Created the first spherical globe, which offered a more realistic depiction of Earth’s 3-D shape, significantly advancing geographical understanding.

From Cosmography to Scientific Geography

Contribution of Bernard Varenius

• Who Was Bernard Varenius?
  • A Dutch scholar (1622-1650), Varenius authored “Geographia Generalis” in 1650, which was a significant step toward establishing scientific geography.
• Varenius’ Work:
  • Combined general, mathematical, and physical geography, laying the foundation for modern scientific geography.
  • Clearly distinguished between two forms of geographical scholarship:
    • Special/Particular Geography: Focused on describing particular places or regions.
    • General Geography: Concerned with developing general laws and hypotheses applicable to wider areas.
• Varenius’ Approach:
  • Proposed that special geography provides detailed data about specific places, while general geography analyzes spatial patterns and distribution.
  • Emphasized that these two aspects are not opposed but are interdependent parts of geography as a unified scientific field.
  • His approach influenced European geographical thought for over a century, though he showed limited interest in human geography because it couldn’t be analyzed mathematically.

The Impact of Discoveries: Scientific Advancements

New Answers to Questions about Earth and Nature

• The 17th and 18th centuries saw a shift away from theocratic explanations of the Earth’s origins toward more scientific methods.
• Notable Contributions:
  • Edmond Halley (1682): Proposed theories about comets, inspiring others to explore the origin of the Earth.
  • William Whiston: Suggested that the Earth was made from comet debris, with tidal waves shaping continents and ocean basins.
  • Abraham Gottlob Werner: Proposed that sedimentary strata were formed by the cooling atmosphere.
  • John Strachey: Discussed how landforms reflect the underlying rock structure.
  • Simon Pallas: Published geological maps, showing that mountain ranges’ cores consist of granite.
  • Louis Gabriel Comte Du Buat: Explained river sediment equilibrium mathematically, leading to the concept of graded river profiles.
  • James Hutton: Introduced the concept of Uniformitarianism, suggesting that Earth’s surface is in a perpetual state of change.
  • Carolus Linnaeus: Created a classification system based on classes, orders, genera, and species.
  • Jean-Baptiste Lamarck: Proposed a theory of evolution, influencing future scientific thought, including Darwin’s work.
• These contributions led to a more rational and scientific understanding of geography, focusing on detailed observations and case studies.

Placing Geography in the Classification of Sciences: The Contribution of Immanuel Kant

• Who Was Immanuel Kant?
  • A German philosopher (1724-1804) whose interest in geography was driven by his quest for empirical knowledge.
• Kant’s Contribution:
  • Emphasized two ways of classifying phenomena:
    • Logical Classification (Topical Study): Focuses on inherent characteristics.
    • Physical Classification (Positional Study): Based on the position of occurrence in time or space.
• Chorology and Chronology:
  • Chorology refers to the spatial study of phenomena, while chronology refers to the time dimension.
• Geography as a Chorological Science:
  • Kant suggested that geography is a science that studies phenomena lying side by side in space, while history focuses on phenomena arranged in time.
• The Principle of Exceptionalism:
  • Geography and history are unique because they are descriptive in their approaches, with geography focusing on spatial dimensions and history on temporal dimensions.

Geography in the Nineteenth Century: The Age of Humboldt and Ritter

The Age of Humboldt (1790–1859)

The Role of Kant in Laying the Groundwork

• Immanuel Kant’s classification of sciences provided geography with a framework as a scientific discipline, giving it a sense of responsibility and purpose.
• Although Kant’s contributions were theoretical, they prepared the ground for a more systematic approach to geography, a task that Humboldt took up.

Alexander von Humboldt: The Father of Modern Geography

• Who Was Alexander von Humboldt?
  • A versatile German scholar (1769–1859), Humboldt made significant contributions to various scientific fields, including geology, mineralogy, botany, earth magnetism, and meteorology.
  • Regarded as one of the foremost intellectuals of his time, Humboldt is often referred to as the “father of modern geography.”
• Humboldt’s Contributions to Geography:
  • Humboldt’s work represented a “beginning and an end”:
    • The beginning of geography as a modern analytical science with its own methodology.
    • The end of the old cosmographical geography, which was a mix of science and fiction.
  • Humboldt’s contributions were characterized by his systematic approach and his emphasis on understanding phenomena horizontally arranged on the Earth’s surface.
• Kosmos: The Magnum Opus:
  • Humboldt’s life work, “Kosmos,” aimed to unify all his scientific ideas and research, representing the entire material world and the phenomena of heavenly space and terrestrial life.
  • This ambitious project, consisting of five volumes (the last left incomplete), was a major attempt to synthesize scientific knowledge about the universe.
• Concept of Organic Unity and Zusammenhang:
  • Humboldt introduced the concept of zusammenhang (meaning “hanging together”), which emphasized the interdependent unity in nature.
  • He believed in the idea of organic unity, where all elements of nature are interconnected.
  • Humboldt viewed the Earth as an organic whole and rejected the dualism between man and nature, which was prevalent in scientific thinking at that time.
• Man-Environment Dichotomy:
  • Unlike some of his contemporaries, Humboldt included humans as part of the scientific study of the Earth’s surface, supporting the idea of man-environment interaction.
  • He is considered the pioneer of systematic physical geography, emphasizing the importance of studying physical features without excluding human influences.
• Regional vs. Systematic Geography:
  • Although often regarded as the father of systematic physical geography, Humboldt was, at heart, a regionalist.
  • He believed there was no dichotomy between systematic and regional studies, and he focused on what Hartshorne later called “comparative regional geography.”

Carl Ritter (1779–1859): The Pioneer of Regional Geography

• Who Was Carl Ritter?
  • Carl Ritter, a German scholar and contemporary of Humboldt, was another founding figure in modern geography. He was trained to observe man’s relationship with his natural surroundings.
• Ritter’s Approach to Geography:
  • Influenced by the Kantian view of the world as an organic whole, Ritter believed in the unity of nature, but his approach was more anthropocentric (centered around human beings).
  • He viewed geography as the study of the Earth in relation to humanity, focusing on how the physical environment influences human history and activities.
• The Erdkunde: Ritter’s Life Work:
  • Ritter’s major work, “Erdkunde,” spanned nineteen volumes and covered Africa and Asia. Although unfinished, it laid the foundation for a new style of regional geography.
  • His approach incorporated all available information, synthesizing it to present a complete picture of the area under study.
• Concept of Unity in Diversity:
  • Ritter emphasized understanding the interconnections and causal relationships among diverse phenomena within a region, guided by the concept of unity in diversity.
  • He believed in the “organic unity in nature,” similar to Humboldt, but his approach was influenced by his deep Christian faith, leading to a more teleological (purpose-driven) perspective.
• Man and Nature:
  • Ritter saw geography as a way to understand the connection between the Earth and human activities, believing that God created the Earth to serve human needs.
  • Unlike Humboldt’s scientific approach, Ritter’s ideas were often rooted in theological beliefs, making his view of geography teleological.
• No Dichotomy Between Man and Nature:
  • Despite differences, both Humboldt and Ritter rejected the separation between man and nature, emphasizing that human activities and the natural environment are interlinked.

Humboldt vs. Ritter: Key Differences and Similarities

Aspect	Alexander von Humboldt	Carl Ritter
Philosophical Approach	Scientific and empirical, focused on aesthetic knowledge	Theological and teleological, centered around divine purpose
View of Unity	Organic unity as a rational scientific principle	Organic unity rooted in Christian belief
Focus in Geography	Emphasized both systematic and regional geography	Primarily focused on regional geography
Man-Environment Relationship	Viewed man as an integral part of nature	Believed Earth was created to serve man’s needs
Notable Work	“Kosmos”	“Erdkunde”

Contributions to Modern Geography

• Foundation of Modern Geography:
  • Humboldt’s approach transformed geography into a systematic, analytical science, emphasizing observation and scientific inquiry.
  • Ritter pioneered the regional approach, emphasizing the interconnections between natural phenomena and human activities.
• Concept of Organic Unity:
  • Both Humboldt and Ritter viewed geography as the study of an organic whole, where all elements are interconnected.
• Impact on Physical and Human Geography:
  • Humboldt laid the foundation for physical geography, focusing on natural features and phenomena.
  • Ritter’s anthropocentric approach influenced the development of human geography, emphasizing the role of humans in shaping the environment.

Geography After Humboldt and Ritter: Developments in the Late 19th and Early 20th Century

Developments in Germany

Friedrich Ratzel (1844–1904): The Greatest Contributor to Human Geography

• Pioneer of Anthropogeography:
  • Friedrich Ratzel, often regarded as the greatest contributor to the development of human geography, published his influential work “Anthropogeographie” in two volumes (1882 and 1891).
  • Hartshorne’s View: The term “Anthropogeographie” was misleading, as Ratzel’s focus was not just on the geography of individuals or races but more on the products of man’s social life and their relationship to the Earth.
• Approach and Methodology:
  • First Volume (1882):
    • Emphasized the influence of physical features on human culture, attempting to find connections between the environment and human societies.
    • Influenced by Darwin’s theory of evolution, Ratzel suggested that the physical environment played an active role in shaping human life, introducing the concept of “social Darwinism” in human geography.
  • Second Volume (1891):
    • Adopted a reverse approach, focusing on human groups and the geographical distribution of cultural phenomena.
    • Highlighted the importance of migrations in the diffusion of cultural traits, emphasizing that geographical explanations must consider both geographical and historical factors.
• Misinterpretation of Ratzel’s Ideas:
  • The English-speaking world primarily embraced the ideas from the first volume, leading to the mistaken belief that Ratzel advocated environmental determinism in human geography.
• Concept of Cultural Landscape:
  • Ratzel was the first to clearly formulate the concept of the cultural landscape, referring to it as a “historical landscape” because it reflects the historical phases of human occupancy in a given area.
• Politische Geographie (1897) and the Concept of Lebensraum:
  • In his work “Politische Geographie,” Ratzel described the state as an organism attached to the land, suggesting that states, like natural organisms, must grow or die.
  • He introduced the concept of Lebensraum (living space), which implied that stronger states had the right to expand their territories at the expense of weaker neighbors. This idea later became controversial, especially in the context of Nazi Germany.

Developments Outside Germany

Contributions of Vidal de la Blache (1845–1918): The French School of Possibilism

• Who Was Vidal de la Blache?
  • Unlike Germany, where multiple schools of thought emerged, the growth of modern geography in France was primarily shaped by one individual, Paul Vidal de la Blache.
  • He founded a new school of thought in human geography that dominated until the Second World War.
• Development of Possibilism:
  • As a contemporary of Ratzel, Vidal de la Blache was influenced by his works, particularly the second volume of “Anthropogeographie.”
  • He introduced the concept of possibilism, which argued that while nature sets limits and offers possibilities for human development, how humans adapt to their environment is largely determined by their traditions and cultural practices.
• Key Ideas of Possibilism:
  • Culture (inherited traits) is the primary factor determining how communities interact with and adapt to their environment.
  • There is no dichotomy between natural and cultural aspects of geography. The landscape is shaped by both nature and human activity, creating a unique personality for each area, termed “pays” (meaning village in French).
  • Vidal’s approach emphasized that physical and human aspects cannot be separated, as every inhabited area is transformed by human habitation.
• Principes de Géographie Humaine:
  • Before his death in 1918, Vidal was working on a comprehensive book on human geography. His student, Emmanuel de Mortonne, completed the work, and it was published in 1921 as “Principes de Géographie Humaine” (Principles of Human Geography).

La Tradition Vidalienne (The Vidalian Tradition)

• Possibilism and Terrestrial Unity:
  • The Vidalian tradition emphasized the principle of terrestrial unity, rejecting the dichotomy between man and nature.
  • It advocated for the interconnectedness of physical and human geography, influencing French geographical thought for many years.

Contribution of Elsworth Huntington (1876–1947)

• Climatic Determinism:
  • Huntington was an American geographer who wrote extensively about the effects of climate on human life.
  • He correlated historical events, such as the Mongol invasions, with periods of drought, suggesting that climatic changes influenced human migration and conquests.
• Gradual Shift to Possibilism:
  • Although Huntington initially emphasized environmental determinism, American geography gradually moved away from this philosophy, leaning towards possibilism.
• Notable Works:
  • “The Pulse of Asia” (1907) and “Civilization and Climate,” where he advanced the thesis that civilizations develop primarily in the temperate regions with stimulating climates.

Contribution of Ellen Churchill Semple (1863–1932)

• Environmental Determinism:
  • Semple, influenced by Ratzel, introduced his ideas to the American audience through her works.
  • Her book, “Influences of Geographic Environment” (1911), promoted the view that the environment plays a significant role in shaping human life, presenting a form of environmental determinism.
• Probabilistic Approach:
  • Although Semple emphasized that the environment influences human actions, she acknowledged that it does not strictly control them, making her approach more probabilistic.

Development of Historical Geography

• The Concept of Sequent Occupance:
  • This concept, introduced by Derwent Whittlesey, focused on the sequences of settlement processes in specific areas.
  • It emphasized that the same physical conditions can have different meanings for different cultures, depending on their level of technology and cultural practices.
• Sequent Occupance Defined:
  • Each generation of human occupation is linked to its predecessor and successor, reflecting mutations in natural and cultural characteristics over time.
  • Whittlesey’s idea highlighted that historical geography is not static but a dynamic process shaped by human activity and environmental factors.

Regional Geography: From Chorology to Behavioural Geography

The Critical Revolution in Regional Geography: Moving Beyond Chorology

Dissatisfaction with Regional Geography

• Freeman’s Critique (1961):
  • The mid-20th century saw growing dissatisfaction with the work of regional geographers who followed a chorological (place-based) approach.
  • The belief that the Earth’s surface could be divided into unique, clearly identifiable regions led to an overemphasis on uniqueness, neglecting theory and generalization.
• The Hettner Idiography and Systematic Perspective:
  • Hettner’s concept of geography as an idiographic science (focused on describing unique regions) dominated geographical thought, but Ackerman criticized this for isolating geography from other physical and social sciences.
  • The systematic perspective offered a remedy by encouraging connections with other disciplines, fostering broader scientific inquiry.
• Platt’s View (1959):
  • Platt lamented that the search for a solid footing led geographers to separate themselves from other sciences, resulting in a narrow, descriptive approach.

From Regional Exceptionalism to Generalization and Theory

• Schaefer’s Critique of Exceptionalism (1953):
  • Schaefer, an economist turned geographer, argued against the idea of geography as an “exceptionalist” discipline.
  • He advocated adopting scientific positivism and proposed that geography should focus on the spatial distribution of phenomena rather than on the uniqueness of regions.
  • According to Schaefer, all sciences, including geography, aim to study unique events but seek to explain them using general laws.
  • Schaefer argued that geography should be concerned with patterns and spatial arrangements rather than the phenomena themselves.
• Hartshorne’s Defense of Chorology:
  • Despite Schaefer’s arguments, Hartshorne reaffirmed that geography’s primary concern was to describe and interpret the variable character of the Earth’s surface as a world of man.
  • He believed that the study of complex integrations in unique places was central to geography, maintaining that description and explanation of individual cases were essential to the discipline.

The Behavioural Persuasion in Geography and the Rise of Humanistic Geography

Behavioural Geography: An Overview

• Objectives of Behavioural Geography (Golledge & Timmerman):
  1. Develop models that provide alternatives to normative models.
  2. Define environments beyond just the objective physical environment.
  3. Include psychological and social aspects in human decision-making.
  4. Focus on individuals rather than generalized populations.
  5. Find alternatives to mathematical and statistical methods to predict human choices.
• Behavioural Revolution and Positivism:
  • Behavioural geography emerged as part of the behavioural revolution, which includes humanistic geography as well.
  • Unlike earlier approaches, behavioural geography was not entirely against positivism; it sought to refine and reorient its application in geography.
• Critique of Positivist Models:
  • The concept of the “economic man” and rational decision-making models were questioned, as they failed to reflect real-life situations.
  • Geographers realized that a deeper understanding of human-environment interaction required considering the mental images that decision-makers form about their environment.

The Emergence of Behavioural Geography

• Julian Wolpert’s Contribution:
  • Julian Wolpert’s paper, “The Decision Process in a Spatial Context” (1964), marked the beginning of the behavioural approach in geography.
  • Wolpert’s study on agricultural land use in Sweden challenged the concept of the “economic man” and highlighted that decision-making was often based on bounded rationality rather than optimal solutions.
• Key Concepts:
  • Bounded Rationality (Simon, 1956): Decision-makers have limited knowledge of their environment and operate under conditions of uncertainty.
  • Wolpert’s work showed that farmers often made decisions based on “satisficing” rather than optimizing, indicating that human decision-making deviated from the ideal rational model.

Techniques Used in Behavioural Geography

1. Mental Maps

• Concept:
  • Mental maps represent the perceived mental images individuals have about their environment, based on which they make decisions.
  • First used by Wooldridge but popularized by Gould, mental maps help analyze cognitive thinking and social behavior.
• Assumptions:
  1. People have environmental images mediated through perception.
  2. These images can be accurately identified.
  3. There is a strong relationship between the image and behaviour.
• Positivist Influence:
  • Although mental maps are subjective, behavioural geography relies on positivist methods to arrive at generalizations, causing disagreements with humanistic geography.

2. Behavioural Matrix (Pred’s Model)

• Concept:
  • A behavioural matrix is a 2D plane where the axes represent the quantity and quality of information and the ability to use it.
  • A perfectly rational economic man would be placed in the upper right-hand corner, while others could be placed anywhere on the matrix.
  • This model helps predict individual choices, and people’s positions may change over time as they learn and adapt.

3. Stochastic Theories and Generalizations (David Harvey)

• Harvey’s Contribution:
  • Harvey suggested that due to uncertainty and perceptions, normative theories might not always be applicable.
  • He advocated for using stochastic (probability-based) theories, which are now common in fields like management for predicting customer choices and behavior.

Behaviouralism in Geography: Evolution or Revolution?

• Not a Complete Revolution:
  • Behavioural geography did not represent a radical break from the past; it became an attachment to the quantitative revolution’s spatial-science paradigm.
  • It continued to believe in positivism and aimed to develop generalizations and theories, rather than completely rejecting the existing framework.

Studies of Hazard Perception

• Gilbert White’s Contribution (1945):
  • Gilbert White’s Ph.D. thesis on “Human Responses to Floods” emphasized the importance of human perception and behavior in dealing with environmental hazards.
  • He demonstrated that decision-making in geography is never value-free, advocating for a more socially relevant orientation in geography.

Relationship Between Perception, Cognitive Images, Values, and Behaviour

• Process Overview:
  • Real-world information enters the mind through perceptual senses.
  • This information is filtered through personality, physiology, language, society, and culture, creating an image of the real world.
  • The image interacts with one’s value system, leading to decisions that result in spatial behaviour, which in turn affects further information searches.

Conclusion

The evolution of geography, from Humboldt and Ritter’s foundational work to modern developments, showcases its transformation into a dynamic, interdisciplinary field. Early emphasis on systematic and regional studies paved the way for Ratzel’s cultural geography and Vidal de la Blache’s possibilism. The critical revolution challenged regional exceptionalism, leading to systematic and theoretical approaches that emphasized spatial analysis. Behavioural geography further expanded the discipline by incorporating cognitive and psychological aspects, providing deeper insights into human decision-making and man-environment interactions. These developments have shaped geography into a comprehensive science that explores both the spatial distribution of phenomena and human-environment relationships.

1. How did the contributions of Bernard Varenius and Immanuel Kant shape the transition from cosmography to scientific geography? Discuss their influence on the dualism of general and special geography. (250 words)
2. Analyze the significance of the concept of “sequent occupance” introduced by Derwent Whittlesey and its impact on the study of historical geography. (250 words)
3. Discuss how the concept of mental maps and bounded rationality challenged the notion of economic rationality in decision-making within geography. (250 words)