Literary Sources: Foreign Accounts (Chinese Writers)

Introduction

Foreign travelers who visited India in ancient times played a key role in preserving historical information that might otherwise have been lost. Among these, Chinese Buddhist pilgrims like Faxian, Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang), and Yijing (I-Tsing) provided valuable records of India’s social, religious, economic, and political life. These monks visited India in different centuries with the aim of collecting Buddhist scriptures, and their writings offer a rich glimpse into the condition of Indian society and its cultural life. Their detailed observations help us understand how Buddhism evolved in India and how Indian civilization impacted Asia through religious exchanges and scholarly pursuits.

Faxian: The First Chinese Pilgrim to India

Who was Faxian?

• Faxian was a Chinese Buddhist monk who traveled by foot from China to India in the early 5th century CE.
• His original name was Sehi, later changed to Faxian, which means “Splendor of Dharma“.
• He came to India primarily to acquire original Buddhist texts and gain knowledge about Buddhist practices.

His Contributions

• He wrote a travelogue called ‘A Record of Buddhist Kingdoms’, which is considered the first eyewitness account of Buddhist pilgrimages and rituals in Central and South Asia.
• Along with Buddhabhadra, he translated several key Buddhist texts into Chinese, such as:
  • Mahāparinirvana Sutra
  • Mahāsāmghika Vinaya
  • Samyuktabhidharmahrdaya Sastra
• He emphasized that all beings possess Buddha-nature, reflecting his Mahayana Buddhist beliefs.

Timeline and Journey

• Faxian visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II in the early 5th century.
• Although he didn’t name the king, he praised the ruler of Madhya-desha (Central India).
• He entered India from the Northwest, reached Patliputra, and stayed there for three years.

Places Visited

• He visited many important Buddhist and cultural sites:
  • Kapilavastu
  • Bodh Gaya
  • Benaras
  • Mathura
  • Kanauj
  • Kushinagar
  • Vaishali
  • Rajgriha

Cultural and Religious Observations

• Faxian observed the coexistence of Hinayana and Mahayana sanghas.
• He collected and translated 11 Buddhist texts, including devotional texts like the Zazang Sutra.
• He often chanted Avalokiteshwara during emergencies, reflecting his belief in the Mahayana deity Amitabha.

Faxian’s Account of Indian Society and Governance

Political Environment

• Faxian did not describe specific political events but observed:
  • A liberal and benevolent administration under the Gupta Empire.
  • Few disputes and rare punishments, mainly in the form of fines rather than physical punishments.
  • Repeat offenders were punished more harshly.

Social Conditions

• India was a peaceful country where one could travel freely without molestation or even needing a passport.
• People were prosperous, kind, and simple in morals.
• Vegetarianism was practiced widely, especially by the upper castes. Meat-eating was mainly found among lower castes and untouchables.
• Sudras (the lowest varna) lived outside towns and had to make noise while entering, often being butchers or hunters.
• The rich were generous, donating to temples, monasteries, and hospitals.

Economic Conditions

• The main source of income for the state was land revenue.
• Government employees were paid in cash, and were forbidden from accepting bribes.
• Taxes were light, and even monasteries and temples held tax-free lands.
• Hospitals were built for the poor, and free medicine was distributed.
• Trade was vibrant:
  • Sea trade connected India with China, Southeast Asia, West Asia, and Europe.
  • Key ports:
    • Western Coast: Cambay, Sopara, Baroach
    • Eastern Coast: Tamralipti

Religious Conditions

• Buddhism and Hinduism flourished together peacefully.
• Buddhism was strong in Punjab, Bengal, and Mathura, but was declining in Kapilavastu, Gaya, and Kushinagar.
• Even government officials respected monks.
• The ruling emperor was a devotee of Vishnu but was tolerant toward other faiths.
• Pilgrimages and chariot processions in Patliputra amazed Faxian, where images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas were paraded.

---

Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang): The Prince of Pilgrims

Who was Xuanzang?

• Xuanzang, also called Hiuen Tsang, was a 7th-century Chinese Buddhist monk, scholar, translator, and traveler.
• He became a monk in 622 CE and was deeply interested in the Vijnanavada and Yogacara schools of Mahayana Buddhism.
• He is often called the “Prince of Pilgrims” due to the sheer impact and extent of his travels.
• He refused high official posts to pursue scholarly and spiritual goals.
• He wrote a famous travel account titled ‘Da Tang Xi Yu Ji’ (Records of the Western Regions of the Tang Dynasty).

Purpose of Visit

• Xuanzang was disturbed by the inaccuracies and contradictions in Buddhist texts translated in China.
• He wanted to study original Sanskrit texts and clarify Buddhist philosophy at its source—India.
• He felt that without visiting India, his spiritual quest would remain incomplete.

Timeline and Route

• Xuanzang visited India between 629–645 CE.
• He traveled through Central Asia, passing places like:
  • Lampaka (modern Laghman, Afghanistan)
  • Nagarahara
  • Gandhara
  • Udayana
  • Kashmira
  • Taxila

Major Sites Visited in India

• Kapilavastu, Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kusinagara – all sacred to Buddhists.
• Nalanda Monastery (Bihar) – studied under Śīlabhadra, an eminent scholar.
• Matipura (Bijnor, UP) – studied under Mitrasena.
• Mathura, Kanauj, Prayag, Bairat – other prominent religious and cultural centers.
• Spent over 10 years in India traveling and studying.

Cultural Observations

• At Shalatura, he saw a statue of Panini, the great Sanskrit grammarian, confirming the survival of Panini’s traditions into the 7th century.
• Visited Udayana, which had 1400 monasteries belonging to five early Buddhist schools.
• At Taxila, he visited the Dharmrajika Stupa and a monastery of the Sautrantika school.

Xuanzang’s Observations on India’s Life and Governance

Political Conditions under Harshavardhana

• Xuanzang described the Pushyabhuti dynasty and especially King Harsha, as brave, just, and scholarly.
• Harsha shifted the capital to Kanyakubja (Kanauj) and expanded the empire to:
  • Thanesar, Ahichchhatra, Prayag, Shravasti, Kanauj, Magadha
  • Southern boundary: Narmada River
• No corporal punishments were given, except in serious cases where limbs were chopped off.
• Harsha organized religious assemblies at Kanauj and Prayag, inviting Buddhist monks and scholars like Xuanzang.

Harsha’s Achievements

• Harsha defeated Shashanka of Bengal and extended his empire into Kongoda (Odisha).
• He was a patron of arts and literature, credited with:
  • Writing three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, and Nagananda (about Bodhisattva Jimutavahana).
  • Supporting grammar, drama, and Buddhist philosophy.

Army and Cities

• Xuanzang’s descriptions of Harsha’s army include:
  • 100,000 infantry
  • 50,000 cavalry
  • 60,000 elephants
• While many cities were flourishing (e.g., Kanauj), others like Kapilavastu, Kaushambi, Vaishali had declined.
• Monasteries in Magadha (like Nalanda, Bodh Gaya, Tilodaka) were thriving, though many others were in ruins.

King Ashoka’s Legacy

• Xuanzang mentioned seeing Ashokan pillars and sites mentioned in Ashokavadana, including the former torture chamber.
• He supported the Divyavadana story of Ashoka’s conversion due to the influence of Samudra, a merchant-turned-monk.

Social Structure

• Described a rigid caste system:
  • Brahmanas – lived with discipline and high ideals.
  • Kshatriyas – rulers and warriors.
  • Vaishyas – merchants involved in trade.
  • Shudras – agriculturists and service providers.
• Endogamy and strict marriage rules were observed.
• Women had access to education and no purdah, but sati was practiced.

Food, Clothing, and Lifestyle

• People avoided meat, onions, and liquor, but some consumed fish and meat.
• Jewelry and ornaments were widely used; Indian pearls and ivory were admired.
• Consumption of ox, elephant, monkey meat was forbidden.

Xuanzang’s Economic and Religious Observations

Economic Life

• Taxes were light during this period. The king’s share was generally one-sixth of the agricultural produce.
• The main source of income for the state was land revenue.
• Xuanzang noted active textile production, with fabrics like:
  • Kausheya (silk) being popular in India
  • Chinamshuka (Chinese fabric) seen as inferior in quality
• Trade routes were vibrant, especially on the eastern coast of South India, with multiple ports serving as hubs of commerce.

Key Aspects of Trade

• Exports included:
  • Cloth
  • Sandalwood
  • Medicinal herbs
  • Ivory
  • Pearls
  • Spices
• Imports came in the form of:
  • Gold
  • Silver
  • Horses
• Agricultural production was rich:
  • Rice and wheat were staple crops.
  • Milk, butter, sugar, and mustard oil were common products.

Religious Conditions in Xuanzang’s Time

Hinduism

• Hinduism was the dominant religion, especially under the Pushyabhuti rulers.
• Early kings worshipped Surya (the Sun God), while Rajyavardhana was devoted to Buddhism.
• Harshavardhana was a devotee of Shiva, but was also inclined towards Buddhism.
  • He organized a religious assembly at Kanauj, inviting people from all religious backgrounds.
  • Representatives from Assam and Valabhi also attended.

Jainism

• The Digambara sect of Jainism was more popular than the Shvetambara sect.
• Jain establishments enjoyed royal patronage from:
  • Chapas of Gujarat
  • Paramaras
  • Gangas, Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, and Kadambas in peninsular India.

Buddhism

• Mahayana and Hinayana monks lived in the same monasteries, though they had doctrinal differences:
  • Mahayana monks venerated images of bodhisattvas.
  • Hinayana monks did not practice image worship.
• Monasteries were well-built:
  • Three-storeyed towers, beautiful doors and windows, and large assembly halls.
  • Monks’ quarters were plain outside but richly decorated inside.
• Xuanzang described the rest house for Sri Lankan pilgrims at Bodh Gaya, built by King Samudragupta on the request of Meghavarna of Sri Lanka.

Religious Tolerance

• Xuanzang praised the religious tolerance in India.
• People changed religions voluntarily, and multiple sects co-existed peacefully.

Criticism of Xuanzang’s Account

• He presented a stereotyped image of Harsha’s army and administration.
• Though highly respectful of Harsha and Buddhism, he criticized two major Hindu philosophies:
  • Samkhya
  • Vaiseshika
• Scholars argue he was favorably inclined towards Buddhism, which could have caused bias in his reporting.

Historical Value of Xuanzang’s Journey

As a Historical Source

• Xuanzang’s travel records are one of the most valuable sources for 7th-century Indian history.
• His writings describe:
  • The landscape, climate, and natural produce
  • The caste system
  • Daily customs and religious practices

Perspective and Objectivity

• According to historian D. Devahuti:
  • Xuanzang was not excessively biased.
  • He praised both Buddhist and non-Buddhist rulers when deserved.
  • He wrote his account after returning to China, reducing chances of political flattery.

Diplomatic Impact

• He played a role in strengthening ties between the Tang dynasty of China and Harsha’s court at Kanauj.
• His travels helped in religious exchanges as well as diplomatic relations between India and China.

Cross-Cultural Importance

• As per Tansen Sen, Xuanzang’s writings offer unique insights into cross-cultural interactions.
• His journey is useful not just for historians of India, but also for understanding the religious dynamics of East Asia.

---

Yijing (I-Tsing): The Orthodox Buddhist Chronicler

Who was Yijing?

• Yijing, also spelled I-Tsing or Yìjìng, was a Chinese Buddhist monk from the Tang dynasty.
• Influenced by Xuanzang, he became deeply interested in orthodox Buddhist practices, particularly the Vinaya Pitaka (rules of discipline).
• He spent several years studying in India and Southeast Asia, including places like Nalanda and Srivijaya.
• Unlike his predecessors, he was more focused on religious practices and monastic rules, rather than giving a comprehensive picture of political or social life.

Timeline and Route

• Yijing departed from Canton in 671 CE by sea route, using a Persian ship—a clear sign of maritime trade networks between China, India, and Persia.
• He reached India in 673 CE, and resided in the region until 685 CE.
• He then traveled to Srivijaya (modern Sumatra), which was deeply influenced by Indian culture and Buddhism.

Major Places Visited

• Magadha and sacred Buddhist sites in eastern India.
• Nalanda University, where he stayed for 10 years, studying Buddhist canon and Vinaya discipline.
• Tilodaka Monastery, an important learning center.
• Valabhi University in Gujarat, where the Sammatiya school of Hinayana Buddhism was taught.
• Srivijaya (Sumatra), where he spent six months learning the local language and grammar to aid in future translations.

Yijing’s Observations and Contributions

Economic and Trade Aspects

• His journey through Persian ships indicates the robust oceanic trade of the 7th century.
• He sailed through the South China Sea and Southeast Asia, visiting regions with strong Indian cultural influence, like Srivijaya.
• His journey reflects the maritime spread of Buddhism and international Buddhist networks across Asia.

Religious Contributions

• Yijing’s writings are focused on monastic discipline, rituals, and proper practices of Buddhist monks.
• He criticized errors that had crept into Chinese Buddhist practice and sought to correct them using Indian sources.
• Authored two major works:
  • “The Record of Buddhism as Practiced in India”
    • A detailed guide on Indian Buddhist doctrines and monastic rules.
  • “Memoirs of Eminent Monks who Visited India”
    • Offers biographical accounts of 56 Chinese monks who traveled to India.
• Described the relationship between Mahayana, Hinayana, and early Buddhist schools in India.
• Emphasized the importance of interpreting the Vinaya in its original context and offered adaptations suitable for Chinese culture.

Cultural Contributions

• Translated over 400 texts, making him one of the most prolific Buddhist translators.
• Introduced paper and ink usage in China in 689 CE for the translation of Sanskrit Buddhist texts into Chinese.
• Helped standardize Buddhist practices across the East Asian world.

Social Observations

• Yijing did not record extensive details about social conditions in India.
• He mentioned being robbed by bandits, and that some people believed in offering white-skinned foreigners as sacrifices—indicating the presence of superstitions and sacrificial rituals in some remote areas.
• His focus remained strongly on religion and monasticism.

---

Comparative Table: Chinese Travelers to Ancient India

Conclusion

The accounts of Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing together provide a comprehensive understanding of ancient Indian society, especially from the Gupta to post-Gupta periods. While Faxian offered the earliest firsthand account of Buddhist pilgrimages, Xuanzang gave a detailed description of Indian politics, economy, and religion during Harshavardhana’s reign. Yijing added depth to our knowledge of Buddhist discipline and transnational religious networks, especially via the sea route. Despite their religious motivations and occasional biases, these travelers preserved a treasure trove of historical, religious, and cultural information, enabling historians to reconstruct the global importance of ancient India in the Buddhist world and beyond.

---

1. Discuss the historical significance of Faxian, Xuanzang, and Yijing in reconstructing ancient India’s socio-religious life. (250 words)
2. Examine the differences in the accounts of Xuanzang and Yijing in relation to Indian polity and monastic practices. (250 words)
3. How do the travel accounts of Chinese pilgrims reflect the state of Indo-Chinese cultural and religious exchanges in ancient times? (250 words)