Social stratification

Introduction

Social stratification refers to the hierarchical arrangement of individuals and groups in any given society, based on various differences, such as wealth, power, prestige, or social status. These differences, both biological and social, are often evaluated in terms of superiority or inferiority, leading to unequal distribution of rewards and privileges. Stratification is a universal phenomenon found in all societies, manifesting through ranked divisions of people. This article explores the concept of social stratification, its criteria, dimensions, and the key theories surrounding it.

What is Social Stratification?

Social stratification is a particular form of inequality where individuals or groups are ranked one above the other based on characteristics that are considered socially valuable. The key aspects of social stratification include:

• Differences among people: Individuals differ biologically (e.g., age, sex, race) and socially (e.g., wealth, power, prestige).
• Evaluation of these differences: When these differences are socially evaluated in terms of superiority or inferiority, it leads to social inequality.
• Differentiation as a universal phenomenon: Differentiation exists in all societies. However, when it takes the form of hierarchical ranking, it becomes social stratification.

Social Inequality

Social inequality can exist without forming a hierarchy, known as social differentiation. For example, men and women may be treated unequally in a society without being ranked above or below each other. But when differences lead to a ranking system, it forms social hierarchy or social stratification.

Social Stratification as a Universal Phenomenon

Social stratification exists in every society. According to Sorokin, an unstratified society, where true equality exists, is a myth that has never been realized. Stratification divides populations into strata based on characteristics considered desirable or undesirable, such as power, prestige, or wealth.

In this hierarchy:

• People may have high, intermediate, or low ranks.
• Social groups are ranked, with members having a sense of common identity and lifestyle.

The process of social stratification involves:

1. Differentiation of members based on certain values.
2. Ranking of individuals based on these values.
3. Differential distribution of rewards such as wealth or prestige.
4. Differentiation of prestige and esteem within society.

Definitions of Social Stratification

Several sociologists have defined social stratification in different ways:

• Ogburn and Nimkoff define it as the process by which individuals and groups are ranked in an enduring hierarchy of status.
• Sorokin describes it as the differentiation of a population into hierarchically superimposed classes with unequal distribution of rights, privileges, and responsibilities.
• Gisbert refers to it as the division of society into permanent groups linked by relationships of superiority and subordination.
• Lundberg highlights the evaluation of differences among people, marking them as higher or lower.

Criteria of Social Stratification

The criteria of social stratification depend on the values upheld by a society. Some of the most common criteria are:

• Birth:
  • Societies with ascribed qualities (involuntary characteristics) often rank individuals based on birth. Examples include caste systems where nobles and serfs, or slave masters and slaves, are rigidly ranked based on descent.
  • Birth-based stratification results in rigid structures that hinder social mobility.
• Wealth:
  • Wealth as a criterion of stratification emerged in the feudal system, where land ownership determined one’s rank.
  • With industrialization, wealth shifted from land ownership to money and credit. Wealth as a criterion allows for more social mobility through hard work and initiative, resulting in an open class structure.
• Prestige:
  • Prestige refers to the respect and admiration a person or occupation commands. The scarcity of talent, the functional importance of a role, and the skills required all contribute to the prestige of an occupation.
• Occupation:
  • Occupations like doctors, engineers, and professors are considered more honorable and influence various aspects of life such as lifestyle, marital relations, and values.
• Education:
  • There is a close relationship between social class and education. The type and amount of education a person receives significantly affect their social class. Children from upper-class families often have access to better education, which further solidifies their higher social standing.

Dimensions of Social Stratification

Sociologist Max Weber proposed a three-dimensional model of social stratification, often referred to as the “Weberian Triumvirate”. He argued that societies are stratified based on three fundamental dimensions:

1. Class:
   • Class refers to economic inequalities, which result from an individual’s market position and their relation to the means of production.
   • Example: Whether someone owns property or not.
2. Status:
   • Status reflects the social esteem or prestige associated with a person’s lifestyle, attitudes, and behaviors. People with similar status share common ideals and lifestyles, distinguishing them from those in other groups.
3. Power:
   • Power is the ability to influence or exercise authority over others. Stratification based on power refers to inequalities in access to authority or control over resources.

These dimensions are often interrelated, but not always. For example, during apartheid in South Africa, wealthy black individuals still could not attain higher status or power due to the racial hierarchy.

Theories of Social Stratification

Sociologists have proposed two main theories to explain the existence and function of social stratification:

Functional Theory

• Postulates that inequality is necessary for society’s functioning.
• Certain roles in society require more skills and training than others, and these roles need to be filled by the most talented and hard-working individuals.
• Unequal rewards serve as an incentive for people to work hard and fill important societal roles.
• Functionalists argue that inequality contributes to the well-being and maintenance of society by ensuring that essential tasks are performed.

Conflict Theory

• Challenges the functionalist perspective, arguing that a high degree of inequality is immoral and wastes the potential talent of society, especially from the lower socio-economic classes.
• According to conflict theorists, stratification benefits only the elites and is not beneficial to society as a whole.
• Stratification robs society of the talents and contributions of individuals who are held back by their social and economic positions.

Forms of Social Stratification

Social stratification can take multiple forms, depending on how a society interprets certain characteristics. The major forms of social stratification include:

Caste System

The caste system is a form of stratification that assigns social status based on birth, with little or no opportunity for movement between castes. This system is highly rigid and deeply embedded in the social and religious customs of society.

Characteristics of the Caste System

• Segmental Division of Society:
  • Society is divided into distinct castes.
  • Each caste has a traditional status that defines its role and importance.
  • Each caste forms a quasi-sovereign body, marked off from one another.
• Endogamous Group:
  • Caste members are required to marry within their own caste.
  • Marrying outside one’s caste is prohibited, with hypergamy (marriage into a higher caste) being an occasional exception.
• Hereditary Membership:
  • Membership in a caste is determined by birth and cannot be changed.
• Restrictions on Social Interaction:
  • Complex taboos govern the caste system, with restrictions based on the concept of purity and pollution.
  • These restrictions limit interactions in public spaces and access to civic amenities.
• Occupational Specialization:
  • Each caste is associated with specific hereditary occupations, which are considered both a right and a responsibility.
  • Individuals are expected to follow their caste-based occupation and cannot easily change professions.
• Common Origin:
  • Each caste group claims a common origin, forming a homogenous unit.
• Social and Religious Hierarchy:
  • Society is divided into various strata, with Brahmins at the top and Sudras at the lowest position.
  • This hierarchy determines one’s social and religious privileges or restrictions.

Estate System

The estate system was primarily found in medieval Europe and is another form of social stratification, emphasizing both birth and wealth. Estates were legally defined groups with specific rights and duties, creating a more flexible system than the caste system.

Characteristics of the Estate System

• Emphasis on Birth and Wealth:
  • Similar to the caste system, the estate system placed significant importance on birth, but also on wealth.
• Legal Definition:
  • Estates were legally defined, with each estate holding a specific legal status comprising rights and duties.
• Hereditary Social Position:
  • Like castes, social position was often passed down through generations.
• Social Classes in the Estate System:
  • Estates in medieval Europe typically included:
    • Clergy
    • Aristocracy (nobles)
    • Commoners
• Example of the Estate System:
  • In pre-revolutionary Russia, society was divided into clergy, nobility, merchants, and peasants.
• Less Rigid than the Caste System:
  • The estate system allowed for more flexibility and mobility compared to the rigid caste system, though it still relied on hereditary social positions.

Class System

The class system dominates modern societies, especially industrialized ones. Unlike the caste and estate systems, class stratification is based less on birth and more on achievement and economic factors.

Characteristics of the Class System

• Absence of Legal Distinctions:
  • In the class system, there are no legal distinctions between classes, and all individuals are subject to the same laws with equal rights as citizens.
• Achievement-Based:
  • A person’s social class is determined not by birth, but by achievement, wealth, occupation, and education.
• Mobility:
  • Social mobility is possible in the class system, with barriers to movement primarily dependent on opportunities available to individuals.
• Existence of Distinct Social Classes:
  • Modern class structures typically include the upper class, middle class, and working class.

Factors Determining Social Class

1. Property: Ownership of land or capital.
2. Income: The amount of earnings from work or investments.
3. Occupation: Certain jobs (e.g., professionals, managers) confer higher status.
4. Status Associations: Social networks and associations with people of higher or lower status.
5. Power: The ability to influence or control others.

Class Sentiments

Class stratification fosters three common sentiments:

1. Feeling of equality with one’s class members.
2. Feeling of inferiority to those in higher classes.
3. Feeling of superiority to those in lower classes.

Theories of Social Class

• McIver regards status as the key criterion of social class, where social rank is based on the recognition of superior or inferior status.
• Karl Marx defines social classes by their relation to the means of production and their role in the social organization of labor. According to Marx, social classes differ based on how they acquire wealth and their relationship with production resources.

Structure of Social Class

The class system involves:

• A hierarchy of status groups (upper, middle, and working classes).
• The recognition of superior and inferior statuses.
• A degree of permanency sustained by economic, political, or religious power.
• Distinctive modes of life, such as cultural expressions or lifestyle differences.

Conclusion

Social stratification is a universal phenomenon that varies in form across different societies. It organizes people into hierarchical layers based on characteristics such as birth, wealth, occupation, and power. The caste system is highly rigid, based on hereditary status with little scope for mobility. The estate system, prevalent in medieval Europe, added a legal dimension but was also hereditary, though slightly more flexible. In contrast, the class system, dominant in modern industrial societies, is based on achievement and offers more mobility, though barriers still exist. Each form of stratification shapes social relations, access to resources, and societal stability, playing a crucial role in determining opportunities and privileges within society.

1. Discuss the consequences of social stratification on access to opportunities and resources in modern societies. (250 words)
2. Compare and contrast the caste and class systems in terms of social mobility and individual rights. (250 words)
3. Evaluate the role of social stratification in perpetuating economic inequality and how it can be addressed. (250 words)