Temple Architecture during Early Medieval Period

Introduction

Indian temple architecture is a vibrant expression of the country’s spiritual and artistic traditions. Spanning centuries and kingdoms, it blends devotion with design. Each region developed unique styles based on local traditions, religious needs, and ruling dynasties. This article explains major temple architecture styles in India—focusing on Odisha, Kashmir, Khajuraho, Māru-Gurjara, and Dravidian traditions. By examining their evolution, structure, and symbolism, we can understand how temples were more than places of worship—they were embodiments of culture, politics, and art.

Odisha Temple Architecture (Kalinga Style)

Historical Background

• Kalinga Architecture, also known as the Eastern Ganga Style, flourished in Odisha between 750 AD to 1250 AD.
• This style was primarily developed by the Eastern Ganga dynasty and is also found in regions of northern Andhra Pradesh.

Phases of Development

• Phase I (750–900 AD):
  • Temples: Lakshmaneshwar, Bhuvaneshwar, and Ishwareshwar.
• Phase II (900–1100 AD):
  • Temples: Lingaraj Temple (Bhubaneshwar), Jagannath Temple (Puri).
  • Jagannath Temple is also known as the White Pagoda.
• Phase III (1100–1250 AD):
  • Temples: Raja Rani Temple, Anant Vasudeva Temple, Sun Temple at Konark.
  • Konark Sun Temple, the largest and latest, is also called the Black Pagoda.

Architectural Characteristics

• Ground Plan and Vertical Division:
  • Base plan is square, often modified into a cruciform shape externally through projections.
  • The temple body features vertical sections called Rathas.
    • Types: Triratha, Pancharatha, Saptaratha.
• Main Temple Elements:
  • Sanctum (Garbha Griha) is called Deul or Srimandir.
  • Tower over it is called Rekha Deul.
• Associated Temple Parts:
  • Jagamohan (Mandapa) – Assembly hall.
  • Nat Mandir – Dancing hall.
  • Bhog Mandir – Offering hall.
  • These halls have Pida Deul-type roofs with a pyramidal form.
  • Absence of Ardha Mandapa distinguishes it from southern styles.
  • Temples may have:
    • Only Rekha Deul.
    • Rekha Deul + Jagamohan.
    • Rekha Deul + Nat Mandir.
    • All four parts (e.g., Lingaraj, Anant Vasudeva).

Khakhara Deula – A Unique Variant

• This style differs from Rekha and Pida Deul.
• Barrel-vaulted roof, similar to Dravidian Gopurams.
• Plan is rectangular with a truncated pyramid-shaped roof.
• Generally used for Shakta temples.
• Examples:
  • Brahmi Temple, Varahi Deula (Chaurasi, Puri).
  • Gouri Temple, Baitala Deula (Bhubaneswar).

Other Notable Features

• No free-standing pillars, but walls have piers (engaged columns).
• Closed halls, with plain interiors and richly decorated exteriors.
• Decoration includes:
  • Images of deities, sacred animals, musicians, dancers.
  • Erotic sculptures, especially in the Konark Sun Temple.

Konark Sun Temple

• Built by King Narasimhadeva I around 1250 CE.
• Known as the Black Pagoda, represents the peak of Odishan architecture.
• Design:
  • Temple shaped like a gigantic chariot of the Sun God.
  • Features 12 pairs of wheels, with 8 broad and 8 thin spokes.
  • Includes Deul, Jagamohan, Nat Mandir, all within an enclosure.
  • Sculptures depict:
    • Erotic scenes.
    • Animals.
    • Torans (Gateways) for aesthetic entry.

Kashmir Temple Architecture

Historical Timeline

• Kashmir’s temple tradition began in the 7th century AD and continued until 1337 AD, when Islamic rule began replacing earlier Hindu and Buddhist patronage.
• Temples built during this period show a strong Buddhist architectural influence, gradually adapted to suit Hindu religious practices.

Buddhist and Hindu Influence

• Buddhist architecture used grey limestone, ideal for smooth surfaces and carving.
• Hindu temples inherited techniques but adapted their plans and elevations to accommodate Hindu rituals.
• Shared features included:
  • Image chambers for deities.
  • Worshipper space.
  • Use of stone carving, ornamentation, and aligned architecture.

Role of Rulers

• Lalitaditya (724–760 AD, Karkota Dynasty):
  • Patron of both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
  • Built Parihaspura and Wangath complex.
• Avantivarman (855–883 AD, Utpala Dynasty):
  • Founded Avantipur and Suyapur.
  • Built temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu.
• Shankarvarman (885–902 AD, Utpala Dynasty):
  • Continued tradition of Hindu temple construction.

Key Examples

• Parihaspura:
  • Built by Lalitaditya.
  • Once a grand Buddhist complex; now in ruins.
  • Only surviving chaitya has a pyramidal roof, which inspired later Hindu temple roofs.
• Wangath Temple Complex:
  • Built in the 8th century by Lalitaditya.
  • Located in Ganderbal, dedicated to Lord Shiva.

Architectural Features

• Gradual development from simple to elaborate designs.
• Orientation typically east or west facing.
• Roofs:
  • Straight-edged, pyramidal, often two-tiered.
  • Influence from Buddhist shrines is evident.
• Unique triangular pediments with trefoil niches on all sides.
• Layout:
  • Rectangular ground plan and courtyard.
  • Surrounded by walls with niche shrines.
  • No Shikhara (tower); instead, a pyramidal roof.
• Central structure often features:
  • Double-chambered gateway matching the main shrine’s style.
  • Fluted pillars, which are rare and distinctive.
  • Absence of Mandapa, focusing more on the Garbha Griha.
  • Trefoil arches and pyramidal gateways.

Materials and Techniques

• Temples used large blocks of grey limestone.
• Created a megalithic appearance but with refined finish.
• Construction was solid and enduring, reflecting both skill and artistic vision.

Temples in Special Settings

• Some, like the Temple of Pandrethan, were built in the middle of water tanks, enhancing spiritual symbolism.

Notable Temples

• Martand Sun Temple (by Lalitaditya):
  • Dedicated to Sun God.
  • Considered the most magnificent Kashmiri temple.
  • Built on a plateau (karewa) for prominence.
  • Features:
    • Rectangular courtyard, peristyle of 86 fluted columns.
    • Garbha Griha, antarala, and closed mandapa.
    • Three ratha projection on exteriors.
    • Largest quadrangular peristyle in Kashmir.
• Avantipur Temples (by Avantivarman):
  • Two main temples: Avantishvara (Shiva) and Avantiswami (Vishnu).
  • Built on high platforms in Panchayatana style.
• Shankaracharya Temple (near Srinagar):
  • Ancient shrine attributed to Lalitaditya.
• Shiva Temple (near Srinagar):
  • Built by Shankarvarman, showcasing Utpala influence.

Khajuraho Temple Architecture

Historical Context

• Built under the Chandela rulers between the 10th and 12th centuries in Bundelkhand, Madhya Pradesh.
• Represents the pinnacle of the Nagara style, noted for exquisite sculptures and symbolic iconography.

Surviving Temples

• Originally 85 temples were built, only 25 survive.
• Dedicated to:
  • Vishnu: 10 temples.
  • Shiva: 8 temples.
  • Surya (Sun God): 1 temple.
  • Chaunsath Yoginis: 1 temple.
  • Jainism: 5 temples.

Examples of Temples

• Kandariya Mahadeva Temple – Largest, dedicated to Lord Shiva.
• Lakshman Temple, Chaturbhuja Temple – Dedicated to Lord Vishnu.
• Chitragupta Temple – Dedicated to Sun God.
• Adinatha Jain Temple – Example of Jain architecture.

Construction Phases

• Phase I – Granite:
  • Temples: Chausath Yogini, Varaha, Brahma.
• Phase II – Sandstone:
  • Temples: Lakshman, Vishwanath, Parswanath, Kandariya Mahadev.

Architectural Features

• Material: Fine-grained sandstone for detail carving.
• Structure:
  • Built on high platforms (jagati) with no enclosure wall.
  • Compact, lofty, and symmetrical structures.
  • Rectangular ground plan.
• Shikhara Design:
  • Main tower is Rekha Shikhara, surrounded by many miniature towers (Urusingas).
  • Crowning Amalak and Kalash symbolize heavenly ascent.
• Temple Layout:
  • Follows Panchayatana system: Main shrine with four subsidiary shrines.
    • Seen in Lakshmana, Vishwanath, Chaturbhuj temples.
  • Sequence: Mukha-Mandapa → Mandapa → Antarala → Garbha Griha.
    • Larger temples include Maha-Mandapa, transepts, balconied windows, Pradakshinapatha.
• Distinctive Features:
  • Seven Rathas on the sanctum.
  • Use of pillars, not piers.
  • Open halls, allowing more light and visibility.

Sculpture and Ornamentation

• Sculptures:
  • 10% erotic, 90% daily life: women doing makeup, dancing, musicians, potters, cavalry.
  • More refined and graceful than Odisha counterparts.
• Decorative Style:
  • Both exterior and interior walls are adorned.

Specific Temples and Their Features

• Lakshmana Temple:
  • Tri-headed Vaikuntha Vishnu, Varaha, Mahisasuramardini, Ganesha, Narsimha.
• Vishwanath Temple:
  • Shiva Linga, dancing Ganesha, Parvati, lovers, flute-playing woman.
• Parswanath Temple:
  • Jain deities, Apsaras, Lakshmi-Vishnu, magic square inscriptions.
• Kandariya Mahadev:
  • Built in 11th century.
  • Contains 84 small Shikharas around the main tower.
  • Dedicated to Shiva, with mandapas, pradakshinapath, grabha griha.
  • Main tower symbolizes Mount Kailash.

Māru-Gurjara Temple Architecture

Origins and Evolution

• Flourished between the 11th and 13th centuries in Gujarat and Rajasthan, primarily under the Chaulukya (Solanki) dynasty.
• Initially used for Hindu temples, but became especially popular in Jain temples.
• Spread across India and internationally through Jain diaspora.
• The term “Māru-Gurjara” was coined in the 20th century by Madhusudan Dhaky, combining styles from Marwar (Māru) and Gujarat (Gurjara).

Developmental Roots

• Evolved from the Gurjara-Pratihara style.
• Early influence seen in Ambika Mata Temple, Jagat, Rajasthan (repairs recorded in 961 CE).
• Earlier features were integrated and refined in Māru-Gurjara temples.

Distinctive Architectural Features

• Exteriors:
  • Full of projecting and recessed walls, creating shadow and depth.
  • Sharply carved statues placed in niches.
  • Lower moldings show horse riders, elephants, and kīrttimukhas (demon faces).
  • Main Shikhara surrounded by urushringas (miniature spires).
  • Larger temples include two smaller side-entrances with porches.
• Interiors:
  • Rich carvings on nearly every surface.
  • Low domes with intricate rosette patterns in Jain temples.
  • Decorative “flying” arches between pillars, not functional but aesthetic.
  • Large pillared halls, often open at the sides.

Temple Layout

• Jain temples follow a structured plan:
  • One closed hall leading to shrine.
  • Two pillared halls, typically open.
  • Often surrounded by cloisters of smaller shrines (devakulikas).
  • Forms a curtain of shrines around the central structure.

Early Hindu Temples

• Somnath Temple (Shiva): repeatedly rebuilt due to invasions.
• Sun Temple, Modhera (1026–27 CE): Famous for step-tank and solar alignment.
• Rudra Mahalaya, Siddhpur (completed 1140 CE): Massive temple layout.
• Others: Rama-Lakshmana temples at Baradia, Kiradu temples.

Stepwells and Towers

• Non-temple monuments include:
  • Rani ki Vav, Patan (1063–83): A stepwell with full temple-like architecture.
  • Kirti Stambha, Chittor Fort: Jain victory tower from early 13th century.

Jain Temples: Refinement and Spread

• Dilwara Temples, Mount Abu:
  • Five temples, built between 1031 and 1582 CE.
  • Vimal Vasahi Temple (1031): Earliest, with cloister screen added later.
  • Luna Vasahi Temple (1230): Famed for elaborate carving.
  • Later three temples built between 1459–1582, using white marble.
  • Features:
    • Sanctuary, closed/open mandapas, rangamandapa.
    • Surrounded by shrines in cloisters.
• Ajitanatha Temple, Taranga:
  • Built in 1161 CE, by King Kumarapala.
  • Contains shikhara and superstructure over mandapa.
• Kumbharia Temples, Banaskantha:
  • Built between 1062–1231 CE.
  • Temples of Mahavira, Shantinatha, Parshvanatha.
  • Each within walled courtyards.
• Bhadreshwar Jain Temple:
  • Constructed in 1248 CE.
  • Surrounded by high walls with subsidiary shrines.
• Girnar Jain Temples:
  • Built on mountain tops, with temples from 1128, 1231, 1453 CE, and later.

Later Temples and Revival

• Post-1244, with fall of Solankis, style declined in Hindu temples but continued in Jain usage.
• Ranakpur Jain Temple (1439–1496):
  • Features Islamic-style corbelled domes, revival of Māru-Gurjara aesthetics.
• Palitana Temples, Gujarat:
  • Hundreds of temples on Shatrunjaya Hills, many rebuilt post-1311 invasions.

Modern and Diaspora Temples

• Jagdish Temple, Udaipur (1651): Shows late survivals of the style.
• Hutheesing Jain Temple, Ahmedabad (1848): Blend of Māru-Gurjara and colonial inputs.
• Ajmer Jain Temple (1864–1895): Neo-Mughal elements added.
• 21st Century Spread:
  • Examples in Houston (Swaminarayan), Antwerp, Potters Bar, Leicester.
  • Jain temples worldwide often retain Māru-Gurjara motifs while blending local styles.

Dravidian Temple Architecture

Geographic and Cultural Base

• Originated in South India, achieving final form by the 16th century.
• Found mostly in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Kerala, and parts of Sri Lanka.

Core Features

• Vimana:
  • Shorter, pyramidal tower over the sanctum (unlike Nagara’s tall curvilinear shikhara).
• Gopura:
  • Tall, ornate gatehouse towers, often larger than the vimana.
  • Became dominant features in larger temples.
• Other elements:
  • Dwarapalakas: Guardian figures at entrances.
  • Goshtams: Niches with deity carvings on outer walls of the Garbhagriha.

Historical Evolution

• Guided by Agamas and Shilpa Shastras like:
  • Mayamata, Manasara, and Isanasivagurudeva Paddhati.
  • These texts describe temple design, sculpture, and spiritual symbolism.

Early Period: Sangam Era (300 BCE – 300 CE)

• Temples of brick for Murugan, Shiva, Vishnu, Amman.
• Excavations at Adichanallur, Mahabalipuram, Kaveripoompuharpattinam.
• Saluvankuppam Murugan Temple (2005 discovery):
  • Layered structure with brick shrine, possibly among oldest in South India.

Pallava Dynasty (275–900 CE)

• Built rock-cut and structural temples in Mahabalipuram and Kanchipuram.
• Key Features:
  • Shore Temple, Rathas, Arjuna’s Penance relief.
  • Kailasanatha Temple (Kanchipuram) – Inspiration for later Chola temples.
  • Innovations:
    • Large temples without mortar.
    • Early use of massive Vishnu images (28–35 feet).

Chalukyas and Rashtrakutas

• Badami Chalukyas (543–753 CE):
  • Known as Early Chalukyas, ruled from Badami in Karnataka.
  • Developed Vesara style, blending Nagara and Dravidian elements.
  • Key monuments:
    • Over 150 temples in the Malaprabha basin.
    • Pattadakal, Aihole, Badami are architectural hubs.
    • Famous for rock-cut and structural temples.
  • Notable paintings:
    • At Ajanta Caves (Cave No. 1): “Temptation of the Buddha” and “Persian Embassy”.
• Rashtrakutas (753–973 CE):
  • Ruled from Manyakheta, Karnataka.
  • Main architectural achievement: Kailasanatha Temple at Ellora.
    • A rock-cut temple carved from a single rock.
    • Mixes North and South Indian styles.
    • Commissioned by Krishna I.
  • Other works:
    • Jaina Narayana Temple, Pattadakal.
    • Navalinga Temples, Kuknur, Karnataka.
    • 34 rock-cut shrines in Ellora and Elephanta caves.

Western Chalukyas (973–1180 CE)

• Also called Later Chalukyas, ruled from Kalyani in Karnataka.
• Temples display refined Gadag style (named after Gadag district).
• Over 50 temples in Tungabhadra–Krishna river basin.
• Notable temples:
  • Kasi Vishveshvara (Lakkundi), Mallikarjuna (Kuruvatti), Mahadeva (Itagi).
• Stepped wells (Pushkarnis) found in Lakkundi show ritual and architectural significance.

Pandya Dynasty

• Developed monumental temples in Tamil Nadu.
• Key examples:
  • Srivilliputhur Andal Temple:
    • Features a 12-tiered Rajagopuram, dedicated to Lord Vatapatrasayee.
  • Meenakshi Temple, Madurai:
    • Known for its massive gopurams.
    • Serves as the official emblem of the Tamil Nadu government.

Chola Dynasty (848–1280 CE)

• Great patrons of temple architecture, especially during Rajaraja Chola I and Rajendra Chola I.
• Major temples:
  • Brihadeeswarar Temple, Thanjavur (Rajaraja I):
    • Tower (vimana) is 216 ft high.
    • Shikhara is an octagonal cupola, carved from a single granite block (weighing 80 tons).
    • UNESCO World Heritage Site.
  • Brihadeeswarar Temple, Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Rajendra Chola):
    • Built around 1030 CE.
  • Airavatesvara Temple, Darasuram (Rajaraja II):
    • Built around 1160 CE.
  • Kampahareswarar Temple, Tribhuvanam (Kulothunga III):
    • Built around 1200 CE.
• Other Contributions:
  • 108 Vaishnava Divya Desams: 40 built or renovated by Cholas.
  • Sri Ranganathaswamy Temple, Srirangam: Largest temple complex in India.
  • Chidambaram Temple: Expanded by Cholas.
• Overseas Influence:
  • Temples in Sri Lanka: Koneswaram, Ketheeswaram, Munneswaram.

Hoysala Dynasty (1100–1343 CE)

• Capital: Belur, later Halebidu, Karnataka.
• Known for distinctive star-shaped platforms and intricate carvings.
• Major temples:
  • Chennakesava Temple, Belur.
  • Hoysaleswara Temple, Halebidu.
  • Kesava Temple, Somanathapura.
• Features:
  • Offshoot of Western Chalukya style.
  • Part of the Karnata Dravida tradition.
  • Decorated with soapstone carvings, intricate moldings, and multiple deities on walls.

Vijayanagara Empire (1343–1565 CE)

• Represented the culmination of South Indian temple architecture.
• Style:
  • Hybrid, blending Chola, Pallava, Pandya, Hoysala, and Chalukya features.
  • Known for:
    • Yali columns (mythical creature sculptures).
    • Ornate mantapas.
    • Rayagopurams (massive entrance towers).
    • Use of hard granite.
• Main monuments:
  • Vitthala Temple, Hampi:
    • Known for the stone chariot and musical pillars.
  • Hazara Rama Temple, Hampi:
    • Has detailed reliefs from Ramayana.
• Patronage:
  • Krishna Deva Raya: Major temple builder across South India.

Kerala Temples: A Dravidian Variant

• Influenced by rainy climate, leading to:
  • Sloping roofs.
  • Timber superstructures over stone cores.
  • Multi-tiered structures.
• Limited large temples due to dense forests.
• Notable examples:
  • Vadakkunnathan Temple.
  • Thirunelli Temple.
  • Kodungallur Bhagavathy Temple.
  • Kandiyoor Sree Mahadeva Temple.
• Early structures influenced by Chera Dynasty (12th century).

Sri Lanka Temples with Dravidian Influence

• Jaffna region: Strong Tamil-Dravidian cultural links.
• Examples:
  • Nalanda Gedige: Buddhist temple with Pallava-style Dravidian elements (8th–10th century).
  • Shiva Devale: Built during Chola occupation (10th century).
  • Lankatilaka Vihara and Gadaladeniya Vihara: Constructed with South Indian architects during Gampola period.
  • Yamuna Eri: Sacred pond built in 15th century.
  • Mantri Manai: Blended Euro-Dravidian architecture.
  • Temples: Naguleswaram, Nallur Kandaswamy, Nagapooshani Amman on Nainativu island.

Conclusion

Indian temple architecture is a vivid tapestry of regional styles, religious expressions, and dynastic patronage. From the geometric Rathas of Odisha, to the pyramidal shrines of Kashmir, the sculptural brilliance of Khajuraho, the carved elegance of Māru-Gurjara, and the monumental symbolism of Dravidian temples, every style carries its own story. These temples are not just places of worship, but living museums of India’s cultural and architectural evolution, revealing the diversity, continuity, and spiritual imagination of the subcontinent.

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1. Discuss how regional styles in Indian temple architecture reflect local geography, climate, and cultural influences.
2. Compare and contrast Māru-Gurjara and Dravidian temple architectures in terms of structure, ornamentation, and religious significance.
3. Examine how temple architecture in India evolved from the early rock-cut styles to highly sophisticated structural temples by the medieval period.